PROCEEDINGS
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ROYAL SOCIETY
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FOR 1939
VOL. LI.
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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF
QUEENSLAND
FOR 1939.
VOL. LI.
PART I.
ISSUED 19th FEB., 1940.
PRICE ; TEN SHILLINGS.
Printed for the Society
by
Thomas Gilbert Hope, Acting Government Printer, Brisbane.
The Royal Society of Queensland.
Patron :
HIS EXCELLENCY, COLONEL THE EIGHT HONOUEABLE SIE LESLIE OEME WILSON, G.C.S.I., G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., P.C., D.S.O.
OFFICERS, 1939-1940.
President :
H. A. LONGMAN, E.L.S.
Vice-Presidents :
Professor H. C. EICHAEDS, D.Sc. Professor J. V. DUHIG, M.B.
Eon. Treasurer: Hon. Secretary:
E. W. BICK. DOEOTHY HILL, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Hon. Librarian:
F. A. PEEKINS, B.Sc.Agr.
Hon. Editors:
D. A. HEEBEET, D.Sc. J. H. SMITH, M.Sc.
Members of Council:
Professor H. E. SEDDON, D.V.Sc., E. O. MAEKS, M.D., B.A., B.E., A. E. EIDDLE, M.Sc., E. H. EOBEETS, D.Sc., M. WHITE, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Trustees :
F. BENNETT, B.Sc., J. B. HENDEESON, E.I.C., and A. J. TUENEE, M.D., F.E.S.
Hon. Auditor:
A. J. STONEY, B.E.E.
Bankers :
COMMONWEALTH BANK OF AUSTEALIA.
CONTENTS.
No. 1.
N’o. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
No. 5 No. 6,
Volume LI., Part 1.
Pages.
, — Presidential Address : Some Scientific? Investigations Affecting
Queensland: By Professor II. C. Pick curds, D.Sc. . . . . 1-14
. — The Absorption of Acids by Wool: By Professor L. S. Bagster,
D.Sc., and Madoline V. Connah, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 15-18
/ — Habits and Ciletotaxy of the Larva of Anopheles Atratipes
Skuse : By Elizabeth N. Maries, B.So. . . . . . . 19-23-
, — The Interrelationships of the Plant Communities of-Queens^
land: By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. 24-31
. — Notes on Australian Cyperaceae, III. : By S. T. Blake, M.Sc. . . 32-50
. — A Review of Australian Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) : By A. Jefferis
Turner, M.D., F.B.E.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-131
Vol. LI., No. 1.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland.
Presidential Address.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND.
By Professor H. C. Richards, D.Sc.
Geology Department, University of Queensland.
[Delivered before the Koyal Society of Queensland, 27th March, 1939.]
Three years ago, on my return from over a year abroad, during which time many research institutions were visited and many scientific investigators were met, I addressed this Society on the part it had played and should continue to play in matters pertaining to research.
Some of you will remember my reminding you that when this Royal. Society was founded — over fifty years ago — those responsible decided very wisely that the objects should be : —
“The leading objects for which this Society is established are
the encouragement of scientific research and the study of new
applications and laws.”
Since that reminder to you I have thought much about the matter, as it has been my good fortune to be associated very closely with many research activities, both within the State and beyond it.
Events of world-wide importance move rapidly these days, and the necessity for this Society to do what it can in furtherance of its 1 1 leading objectives” was never more urgent than now.
You do not need to be told of the changes which have come over the world’s methods of trading, and you are all well-informed as to the influence of these as far as the Empire is concerned, and Australia in particular. Things have changed very decidedly, and we need to use to the very best advantage all our resources — material, research, and human.
The time has not long passed when those who knew the value — economic and otherwise — of research had to implore those whom it would most benefit as to the wisdom of supporting research investigation both financially and in kind.
It is one of the most hopeful features of our outlook to-day that there is an ever-widening appreciation of the value of these research inquiries.
When times are bad — as they were in Australia in 1929 onwards — everybody turns to the economist and to the research scientist, but there is still a very human tendency to forget about the scientist when times of prosperity return, and then in times of adversity to cast the blame on him for not doing something to prevent these unfortunate circumstances.
Perhaps the best, but also the most unfair, tribute paid to the scientist is the blame cast upon him for the development to-day of
OCT 31
2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
tremendous methods of destruction of structures and of mankind. Presumably there are those who think that the progress of science may be halted. It cannot he halted, nor should it be. Man himself should develop, and in his own way keep pace with this development. This matter is an extremely serious one, but, I fear, a fruitless one for me to pursue this evening. May I, however, take up with you the question of aiding and abetting the conduct of pure research investigations?
The Commonwealth Government is an enlightened one as far as research investigations are concerned, especially those relating to the application of science to industry. Through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, we now spend about a quarter of a million pounds yearly on research investigations. These are nearly all affecting the primary industries, and as time goes on, with our mandate to engage in the research investigations relating to secondary industries, this figure must, of course, increase. The State Governments — especially that of Queensland — also are very enlightened in this respect, and they are working in the closest co-operation with the Commonwealth.
What this Society, along with its sisters and universities, needs to do is to safeguard the position of pure research, because applied research of an economic and industrial nature can yield only results in accordance with the development of pure research.
“Research for its own sake” is a slogan that every one of us should paste in his hat. Governments now have learned the wisdom of finding money for the applied researches; while years ago they may have prospered without organised industrial research, to-day they know they will fail without it. But they seldom realise how fundamental to these applied researches is the encouragement and development of pure research investigations. On Royal Societies and universities there are very heavy responsibilities in this matter. It is well to remember that the teachers of advanced science must engage actively in research investi- gations if they hope to inspire their students. They must attempt to advance the frontiers of knowledge, or the frontiers will leave them rapidly behind. #
Mention should be made of the important scientific investigations mainly in the nature of pure research which have been going on in regard to the Great Barrier Reef over a period of sixteen years. This work was initiated within Queensland, and is not only administered from here but has also been carried out mainly by Queensland investigators, with the exception of the work of an expedition of British Scientists in 1928-29, which was organised by the Great Barrier Reef Committee.
The results of these investigations, both by the members of the expedition and by the local workers, are published from time to time and are known to those scientists throughout the world who are concerned in coral reef investigations. This work is continuing year in and year out, and is a good illustration of solid, quiet, pure research along a programme carefully worked out and pursued in an unostentatious fashion.
Associated with the pure researches are certain applied researches of industrial importance, but it may be said definitely that the value of these latter investigations is based completely upon the pure research. The use in the cement making industry to-day in Brisbane of the coralline deposit at Mud Island in Moreton Bay instead of the limestone material
* Soviet Science, J. G. Crowther, page 20.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 3
from Gore is an excellent illustration of the economic results, often of great importance, which follow upon pure research entered upon simply in the spirit of ‘ ‘ research for its own sake. ’ 5
May I appeal to every member of this Society to help in the encouragement of pure research, and, as a reminder of its absolute necessity in the proper development of our country, may I furnish a few instances which, if necessary, you can use when you are “ passing on the torch 9 ’ 9
As pointed out by Sir Frank E. Smith, * it was Roger Bacon who first urged the experimental method in gaining knowledge, and 300 years later Gilbert became famous for his experimental work, especially that on magnetism. Galileo, a contemporary of Gilbert, also, as you know, favoured, in spite of tremendous opposition, the experimental method. The first great revolution in industry which resulted from the work of Black, James Watts, and others on the nature of steam followed upon the results of experiments.
Who would have thought that the experimental work of twenty-five years ago which resulted in the then laboratory toy we now know as the photo-electric cell was producing something that to-day is a vital link in the ‘ ‘ talkies, ’ 9 is used as a burglar alarm, operates in large stores to switch lights on or off, with variation in daylight illumination, groups electric lamps according to their candle-power, arranges cigarettes in rows with the imprinted name uppermost, selects cigars by the colour of the outside leaf, controls the magnitude of electric currents, is used in television, and furnishes a completely unbiassed decision as to the order in which racehorses finish?
Unquestionably, in the past there has been a considerable amount of capital (pure research discoveries) accumulated, and we have been living on that capital. It must be supplemented, however, and the need for constant replenishment must be appreciated far more widely than is the case to-day, and especially by Governments. One may say that nearly every fundamental discovery has originated in the laboratory devoted to pure science when no regard was being paid to its possible practical application.
Faraday’s discoveries, in which lay the germ of all our dynamos and electrical power units, were believed originally to be of no practical importance. Pasteur’s researches, which led him to study fermentation problems and, later on, the control of disease, were originally conducted as pure scientific investigations. It took over twenty years from the time that Clerk Maxwell mathematically proved the existence of electro- magnetic waves for them to be actually produced and recognised, and on this we have based to-day the great system of wireless and radio as we know it. Mendel’s discoveries in heredity and cross-breeding, which have meant millions and millions of pounds to us in Australia in connection with the development of our modern varieties of wheat, originally had no industrial application.
In spite of the above, one of the main difficulties to be overcome in Australia is the recognition of the importance of scientific research and the creation of an atmosphere which will encourage research in all departments of knowledge.
* Norman Lockyer ’a Lecture, 1932, page 6.
4
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Were it not for the capacity to float off separately the lead sulphide and the zinc sulphide from the Mount Isa ore, we should not have had the big industrial development at Mount Isa which has already seen the expenditure of so many millions of money.
There has been a tremendous change during the last few years* and many who viewed the scientist with suspicion, and certainly would have none of him about their precincts, now come almost cap in hand to invoke his aid, and, as I could indicate to you from C.S.I.R. experience, they come now with hands full of money begging us to do the scientific work which they now realise is of such fundamental importance.
Referring to the co-ordinated research efforts so often talked of, the following remarks by Dr. F. P. Keppel, the President of the Carnegie Corporation of New York, are interesting* : —
“There are fashions in research, just as there are fashions in hats and gowns. To-day we have the endocrines, the cosmic rays, heavy hydrogen, the outer galaxies, pioneer belts. There are fashionable techniques — the bombardment of the atom, the partial correlation, the private life of the long-suffering banana fly, the photo-electric eye, linguistic atlases. For a while we are all excited about the possibility of deliberately planned co-operative research.
“We are not so sure to-day.
“It was, by the way, the degree of foundation support going to enterprises of this kind a few years ago which evoked the cry from my predecessor on this platform, Professor Zinsser, of Harvard : —
“ ‘Research Councils and foundations organise co-operative researches, thinking that the shy truth can be snared by the noisy advance of a well-drilled company of technicians, forgetting that discovery was ever a solitary task, in which co-operation must be spontaneous, asked as the need arises by one lonely seeker from another.’ ”
In support of the view that it is absolutely essential to have pure research fostered and encouraged, let us see what our very practical friends in U.S.A. think about it.
Dr. Keppel estimated that in 1927 some £43,000,000 was spent in U.S.A. and about 90 per cent, of the funds came from industrial and commercial bodies. Much of it was necessarily routine and utilitarian research or investigation, but there are many shining examples to the contrary — e.g., Langmuir ’s work in the realm of pure physics is known the world over — he is on the pay-sheet of the General Electric Company. Other instances are contributions by scientists on the staff of the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. — one on endocrinology, another on the physics of light and the chemistry of pigments, and another on personal analysis. None of these has anything much to do with telephones or telegraphs.
Of course, we need scientific workers of the very best calibre, and, speaking generally, the best men for these research posts are our own trained graduates who are “topped off,” if necessary, by carrying out post-graduate or research activities in carefully selected institutions abroad — in those places where they may receive the best inspirations and
* F. P. Keppel: Philanthropy and Learning, page 15.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 5
where they may become acquainted with the right technique. Naturally, we will be well-advised to recruit to a limited extent our research services from time to time by carefully selected people from abroad, but we will find it increasingly harder to induce the old country to send us good men — it wants them all herself — but, fortunately, the local product, adequately trained and experienced, has already demonstrated a fitness to undertake the tasks the country asks of it.
The provision recently by the Commonwealth Government of £30,000 per annum to be used through C.S.I.R. in conjunction with the several universities in Australia in the stimulation of research and in the train- ing of young graduates as research investigators was most wise. It has provided facilities which were sadly needed — in our own University especially — and now the way is clear for anyone who has a “flair” for research investigation to engage in such an activity. The provision of these facilities should be known as widely as possible, and the Common- wealth Government and the University would welcome into this scheme those qualified and competent to serve their country in this all-important matter of research.
While more details will be given of applied researches than of pure researches, it is hoped that the impression will not be left that pure researches, as such, have no sound establishment in Queensland and in Australia, for quite definitely they have.
Applied researches have prominence in this address because most of those who read it will be more concerned in that direction, and the necessity of applying the results of scientifically conducted experiments to our industrial activity is of such paramount importance.
As already indicated, applied researches can progress only on a sound basis of pure research. A long list of scientific research into physical, chemical, engineering, zoological, botanical, geological, and palaeontological matters could be drawn up, but anyone especially interested is advised to consult the proceedings of the various State Eoyal Societies and of the Australian Institution of Engineers, also the Memoirs of the various State museums.
Let us now consider some of the research investigations which have taken place in the past, which are going on at the present day, and which will need to take place in the future. A purely cursory examination indicates that to-day a vast amount of research is taking place within Australia, and in Queensland, in particular, a very wide field indeed is being covered. This field has, generally speaking, been in the realm of primary industry, but we are on the eve of an enormous development on the secondary industrial side which will necessitate the application of a considerable amount of energy, time, and money.
With confidence one may review the past record of achievement and think particularly of the spectacular success which attended the subjugation of the prickly-pear problem by biological control. Let us realise that going on at the present time is this extremely interesting work on chilled beef which brings in its train the necessity for research investigations into the fattening of cattle on improved pastures in our coastal regions. The realisation that the base-metal mining and milling industry at Mount Isa was determined by the capacity to apply selective flotation methods to the various sulphides in turn brings home to one the part which such investigations play in the building-up of a country by the provision of raw materials for industrial activity.
6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
It has been borne in upon ns in a rather brntal manner these last few years that we must learn to stand upon our own legs and that competition in the world’s markets to-day, as far as our primary products are concerned, is very keen indeed. Not only must we learn to produce the goods, but we have to transport them and market them, often under grave disadvantages as far as distance and time are con- cerned. In Great Britain a certain measure of preference to Empire- produced goods exists, but we have keen competition from our sister Dominions, especially Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand. While New Zealand and Australia together face the almost equal and great handicap of distance, South Africa, like the Argentine, our great competitor for so many products, has advantages over us.
In matters relating to foodstuffs, these disadvantages hit us rather severely, but, as a result of long, patient, and careful research investiga- tions, the disabilities are becoming lessened day by day, but possibly will never be overcome completely in all circumstances. It is only by research investigations, however, that these disabilities can be reduced to what may be spoken of as a reasonable vanishing point.
The experiment made at the Low Temperature Research Station in the University of Cambridge some years ago as to length of time a piece of beef could be kept without decomposition was the basis on which our chilled beef export trade is built. It was found that by chilling and providing an atmosphere containing a certain percentage of carbon dioxide the sound life of beef could be much extended.
It is a far cry from that original experiment to the existing position, and it is pleasing to note that in Brisbane so much of the research on chilled beef has been done by C.S.I.R. officers provided with facilities by the Queensland Meat Board.
In Queensland we do well to remember that at present our primary products are of chief importance, and it is useful to recollect that about 80 per cent, of the value of what we send away is produced directly and indirectly from the land.
In connection with these primary products, we have some five considerations to bear in mind : —
(1) The preparation for the crop, whatever it may be;
(2) The production of the crop ;
(3) The harvesting;
(4) Preparation for marketing ;
(5) Transport to markets.
Speaking generally, our record is satisfactory in the first three.
Unseasonable factors over which at present we have no control at times have to be met, but we can take a fair degree of satisfaction in the knowledge that, relatively to other countries, we hold our own in these matters. Regarding (4) — the preparation for marketing — we cannot deny, avoid it as we would wish, that we are very remiss in many directions, and in respect to (5) — transport to markets — we have very grave disabilities to overcome, mainly owing to distance and time.
Research investigations are more applicable and fruitful of results in the matters relating to the preparation and the production of the crops than in the others, but transport difficulties are grave.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 7
All the beneficial results from these research investigations will, however, be much depreciated if the preparation for marketing is not carried out properly, and I am afraid that we in Australia are very neglectful in this matter. People here refuse to believe this, I know, but the agents in Covent Garden markets have told me, and will tell you also ; moreover, they will show you the evidence, which cannot be denied — seeing is believing !
In many cases the results of research in other countries may be lifted readily and applied out here with beneficial results. Unfor- tunately, this cannot always be done, and in this respect, perhaps, Queensland is at a greater disadvantage than some of her sister States, because the country is either sub-tropical or tropical, and because of the White Australia policy.
We can take much quiet satisfaction in the developments which have taken place, but we must accept the challenge in regard to the difficulties, and also appreciate the fact that these difficulties can be met in one way only, and that is by the application of the results of research investigations carried on relentlessly year in and year out.
Now let us turn to the dairying industry. In Queensland there has been a perfectly wonderful expansion, and to-day, under normal seasonal conditions, we produce something like five times as much butter and cheese as we did twenty years ago.
The industry is conducted right from the southern border of the State up to the Mossman area, about 1,000 miles further north (a range of latitude of some 12 degrees), and for some 400-500 miles within the tropics. This performance is unparalleled elsewhere, but it brings with it certain definite problems.
The results of all the research on butter and cheese cultures, on improved pastures, &c., in Denmark may be lifted, holus-bolus as it were, and be applied with great success in New Zealand, or, say, Victoria, because of similar climatic conditions. But you cannot do it for this State because of the different climatic and pasture conditions. We have to tackle our own problems and wrork them out ourselves if we are going to continue the success which has already attended this wonderfully expanding industry. Such things as the proper selection of cows, the use of good bulls, the need for milk-testing, and the necessity of proper hygienic conditions, of course, when more extensively and better applied, will do much, but the climatic conditions of the industry here and the peculiarity of our pastures have to be carefully studied, evaluated, and the results applied.
While one speaks eulogistically of this very great extension of an industry, one often wonders whether in the past the exploitation of certain resources, especially of the non-recurring mineral type, has been of as much benefit to the State as it might have been. The question of whether the State should allow non-recurring resources to be exploited until the fullest investigation as to their amount, quality, and character has been made is a very important one. While not bewailing the mining in the past of very important auriferous deposits in Charters Towers, Gympie, Croydon, and elsewhere, the fruits of which both directly and indirectly did so much to bring about the development of Queensland, I would like to draw your attention to the exploitation of the coal resources of the Ipswich area. Here we have closely adjacent to a big
8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
city which in the future will be very much more important as a manu- facturing centre than it is to-day material which, as marketed at present, must be rated as a relatively inferior coal product, especially for steam-producing purposes. The development of this field by a large number of small collieries has not lent itself suitably to the introduction of modern coal-washing plants, and so we find there is placed upon the market, at a relatively high cost, a dirty product with a high ash content not very acceptable to many who must use it.
This same coal has many virtues as a source of by-products impor- tant in industry, and perhaps in the not-too-distant future will have a value as a raw material for conversion into oil infinitely above its present steam-raising value.
Please don’t misunderstand me. I don’t suggest we should hold up the development of a country, or that we should advocate the non- use of this coal ; but it may well be that it would have been a far better thing for Queensland over a long term of years if there had been a less active operation upon the relatively limited coal resources of this field. The application of research investigations to such material is of far-reaching importance in answering such questions as I have raised.
At Broken Hill many years ago there were evolved for the first time anywhere wet methods of concentrating the lead-sulphide content of unaltered ore-bodies. In the evolution of mechanical devices for harvesting crops and in the discovery of dry-farming methods — long before they were termed such in America — Australia has shown her inventiveness through her research investigations. The production of rice in the Leeton irrigation area of the Riverina by the application of wholesale methods of cultivation and harvesting, such as are used in wheat-farming, has been attended with great success, especially in regard to the cost of production.
In the past there has been evolved that wonderful Australian animal which we call the Australian Merino sheep. We cannot retrace the steps of its evolution to see exactly how this wonderful end-point as far as a wool-producer has been achieved, but of the results there is no doubt, as the whole world acclaims.
All of these achievements showT the capacity of the people in this country to face up to their own problems and to apply research investi- gations with beneficial results.
With pride, Queensland may talk of the triumphal march of progress which has attended not only the production of sugar-cane tonnage per acre, but also the efficiency of the milling of that material by white men within the tropics.
Some ten years ago three University science graduates were sent abroad for a protracted period to study various aspects of sugar production. Subsequently they were placed in executive positions. The Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations, as a result, has a strong and sound scientific leavening, and developments of great importance to the industry have taken place in both field and mill.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 9
The following table and subsequent observations which have been furnished by the Director of the Bureau illustrate this clearly: —
Average for Queensland —
1918-1927 1928-1937.
Tons cane per acre . . . . . . 16-51 18-53
Tons sugar per acre . . . . . . 2-17 2-66
Tons cane per ton sugar .. .. 7-62 6-97
The increased sugar yields per acre reflect both better farm work and improved milling performance. The yield figures for 1936 and 1937 are even more striking, as they show 21-1 and 20-6 tons of cane and 3-04 and 3-06 tons of sugar per acre, respectively, while the tons of cane required to make 1 ton of sugar were 6-94 and 6-73. The cane and sugar yields for 1938 are estimated to approximate closely to these values also.
Costs of sugar manufacture have been substantially reduced by milling research work; they are reflected in both accelerated crushing rates and improved sugar recoveries. Records for the past ten years only are available, but a comparison of the 1928 with the 1937 data
show : —
1928 1937
Average crushing rate, tons cane per hour . . 47 (1932) 59
Sugar extraction, per cent. . . . . . . 94-2 95-2
Boiling-house efficiency. . . . . . . . 95-7 96-7
Tons of added fuel, B.Th.U. ’s (millions) per
ton cane . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-4
As far as forests products are concerned, we find in Queensland especially a very active programme of research in the extension into the field of the results of scientific investigations. Seasoning, utilisa- tion, chemistry, wood structure, timber physics, mechanical properties, preservation, plywood veneers and glueing, and the many uses of such products as gujns, essential oils, tan barks, plastics, artificial silk, &c., are all subjects of keen investigation, and, speaking generally, the fundamental research in these matters is done primarily in the Forests Products Laboratory of C.S.I.R., while a certain amount is done also in University laboratories.
Silvicultural research in Queensland to-day is most vigorous and is certain to yield results of great practical importance. It is essential that we know the best means of perpetuating our forests, and, especially, how to do that while at the same time obtaining the maximum produc- tion of marketable timber.
In this State the work has been concentrated on those forest types which produce the bulk of the State’s timber requirements.
In the making of roads which will last and render the service required, the old order has changed. To-day much testing of soils for stability under varying conditions, of gravels for soundness and binding properties, must be done. In this way only is it possible to build from the bed upwards a stable road, and the application of such research work is now made in most of the States, and it is pleasing to note that it is being done on really sound lines in Queensland.
Later on in this address the question of what dividends are paid by the capital invested in research investigations is considered on a broad basis, but at this stage let us consider whether or not wheat
10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
research in Queensland has paid. I am indebted to the Under Secretary of Agriculture and Stock for the following: —
“In Queensland, prior to the year 1910, the area of wheat harvested did not exceed 100,000 acres, the average yield per acre received being comparatively low, owing to the lack of suitably prolific varieties capable of resisting rust, maturing sufficiently early, and withstanding the effect of moderate storm rains.
“The position is now entirely altered, as a steady expansion has taken place during the last twenty years, culminating in the recent record harvest, estimated to exceed 7,000,000 bushels from an area of over 400,000 acres.
“The wheat-improvement activities of the Department of Agricul- ture and Stock can claim responsibility for a large share of the expansion noted, especially in regard to average yields per acre, as over half the wheat acreage now consists of varieties evolved at the former Roma Experiment Farm under the direction of Mr. R. E. Soutter, wheat- breeder, and introduced into general cultivation through the medium of trial plots on the Darling Downs.
“Pioneering work was commenced at the Roma farm in the year 1906, with a view to the expansion of agriculture in the Maranoa.
“For the ten-year period 1916-1925, the average yield per acre in Queensland was 11-38 bushels — an average which advanced to 14-92 bushels per acre for the following decade (1926-35), being an increase of over 3 bushels per acre.
“With an acreage of 400,000, and regarding wheat as selling at 3s. 6d. per bushel, the increase represents a gain of £210,000 per annum to the State — a sum which more than compensates for the moderate outlay for wheat research during recent years.
“Naturally, due credit must be given to improved cultural methods, coupled with the introduction of tractors and improved farm machinery, particularly the combine-drill and header-harvester, but in this sphere the Department has also been assiduous in advocating early summer fallowing and the correct use of available machinery.
“At the former Roma Experiment Farm the average yield per acre in both field and experimental blocks considerably exceeded the low average yield for the Maranoa district, thereby demonstrating the value of timely and thorough cultural operations.’ ’
Perhaps the most spectacular success of all our great scientific research investigations has been in the biological control of prickly - pear. This, plus (and a very important plus) the administration provided by the State Prickly-pear Land Commission, brought out the wonderful results which are now so well known and which are so justifiably acclaimed.
Australia has during its 150 years of settlement exhibited a capacity to face up to and to solve most of the difficulties which it has met. The protective policy of the country, especially since Federation, no doubt has helped much, particularly in secondary industries and in the sugar- cane growing and milling industry. It is interesting, however, to compare the efficiency of industries such as the steel-manufacturing and sugar-cane growing and manufacturing industries, which have had such
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND. 11
solid protection, with corresponding ones in other parts of the world. If you make this comparison, you will be pleased to find the result is not by any means to the disadvantage of Australia — it is decidedly the other way.
Problems relating to the production of our animal products are very great and are due, like most of our troubles, to the introduction, accidental or otherwise, of organisms not indigenous to this country. The introduction of animals and plants from elsewhere, with the disturb- ance of the balance arrived at by nature over a long period of time, brings in its train a long list of problems which exercise to the full the energies and ingenuity of our scientists.
I have not the time to deal with the effect of cattle tick infestation, of buffalo fly attack, or of soil deficiencies as far as cattle are concerned, or of the troubles the sheepmen have in Western Queensland in keeping up their flocks by natural increase alone, or of the extremely serious results of the blowfly attack, &c. These matters, together with all the pest problems associated with the growth of crops such as tobacco, cotton, &c., are the subject of much experiment and research by Commonwealth and State.
Brilliant success has attended some of the investigations, such as overcoming prickly-pear and blue mould in tobacco, or in connection with pleuro-pneumonia in cattle ; but the challenge offered by the tick, worm nodules, the blowfly, nut grass, and noogoora burr — just to name a very few — demands the best brains provided with all the facilities of training which modern civilisation can provide.
The dividends to be won by the investment of money in researches of this type are great, but there must not be too much impatience exhibited by the investor. The money put out must be regarded as “patient” money which sooner or later is likely to yield enormous dividends.
While most of the researches indicated in this address have been related to either the primary or secondary industries, we must not over- look those on diseases affecting man. The great work in Queensland by a past-president of this Society on filaria made him known throughout the world. I speak of the late Joseph Bancroft.* Several other medical members of this Society have carried out researches of far-reaching importance upon problems which affect man and his environment within this State.
Within the State Department of Health and Home Affairs work on Weil’s disease and certain fevers is especially worthy of note.
Medical research of a scientific character will, no doubt, be carried out in Queensland in the future on more extensive lines than in the past now that we have a medical school within the University.
While one may take confidence out of our past performances, it is perfectly clear that our future existence and expansion are based more and more on the application of the results of scientific investigations. In the past we have shown we can produce the men. We certainly have the problems which are to be solved.
Enough has been said to indicate the worthwhileness of research and the necessity for its continuance in this country, but there are those
* Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., Yol. II, pages 73-76.
12 PROCEEDING'S OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
so-called hard-headed business people who ask for figures in support of the paying character of research. One hopes that already in a general way justification for this has been made, but if one must have figures, then let us see what has been the experience in the mother country of recent years.
Amounts spent on research and the results.
J. D. Bernal,* in a recent article on “A Policy for Scientific Research for Britain, ’ ’ discusses the question of what is the scale of benefits which science is capable of giving to industry, agriculture, and health, and he considers that they are not at all realised. He says that, compared with any other form of expenditure, science is capable of yielding a return incomparably greater.
There is, of course, difficulty in getting precise figures on matters of this kind, but figures have been provided by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research of Great Britain, and they show that research conducted by the Department at a cost of a few thousand pounds “has in many cases saved the industries concerned hundreds of thousands of pounds per annum. ’ ’
Some economies effected as a* result of the researches carried out by D.S.I.R. in connection with six research associations — namely, Iron and Steel, Non-ferrous Metals, Electrical Industries, Refractories, Pood Investigations Board, and Cotton — show that on an expenditure of not more than £400,000 economies have been yielded of not less than £3,200,000 per annum. That is to say, a return on the money invested in research has returned a dividend to the industries concerned of 800 per cent, per annum. That is the kind of thing that appeals to your business man!
One is prompted to inquire what amounts are spent on scientific research in different countries. Bernal has calculated that in Great Britain about £4,500,000 is found altogether by the Government, by universities, and by industry.
This sum represents about one-tenth of 1 per cent, of the national income. If this amount be compared with what is spent on advertising, it is not very large, and is even grotesquely small.
Great as this £4,500,000 spent in Great Britain seems to us, it does not show up too well in comparison with that found in some other countries. Bernal estimates that U.S.A. spends £40,000,000 per annum ; that is three-tenths of 1 per cent, of the national income, and relatively is three times as much as Great Britain finds.
The Soviet Union, however, is the great spender in this respect, and it has been estimated to be just under 1 per cent, of its national income, while in Germany and Japan, Bernal considers “it probable that the proportional sum spent is between three and five times that of Great Britain. ’ ’
There is every reason for believing that these estimates are soundly based, and, as far as U.S.A. is concerned, a relatively recent estimate by Dr. F. P. Keppel of the money spent indicated about £45,000,000 per annum, which is rather greater than Bernal’s figures.
* Nineteenth Century and After, Jan., 1938, page 99 et seq.
SOME SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AFFECTING QUEENSLAND.
13
Regarding the Soviet Union, Major-General A. G. L. McNaughton* indicates that there are 840 institutes engaged in research, and in 1934 there were 47,900 persons engaged in research work. Their annual expenditure now exceeds £100,000,000 sterling for a population of
186. 000. 000 people. General McNaughton indicates that the figures continue to increase just as fast as they produce trained workers. As this Canadian authority puts it, consideration should be given to the ‘ 1 cost of not doing it ” by other countries.
Now, what of Australia? Here we have a population of less than
7.000. 000 and a national income to-day of round about £800,000,000. We have funds for research coming from the Commonwealth and State Governments directly to Government departments and institutes, also indirectly to research organisations financed partly by endowments. Universities contribute materially in this matter; also there has been a marked increase of late from industry itself.
As a result of calculations made by the Information Bureau of C.S.I.R., it would appear that the estimated amount spent in 1938 in Australia from all sources on research investigations was about £1,025,000, or approximately 0-128 per cent, of the national income of £800,000,000. The comparison with that of Great Britain is really very favourable. The sum of something over £1,000,000 is estimated as follows : —
Estimated Sum for 1938. £
. . 272,500
. . 112,500
. . 35,700
. . 25,600
. . 82,500
. . 326,900
. . 42,500
. . 128,000
£1,026,000
= 0-128 per cent, of the national income of £800,000,000.
We have to ask ourselves: Is that enough? It is about all we can spend with our present available trained workers, but I have no doubt about the wisdom of the amount being increased as and when the trained workers become available.
Organisation.
Commonwealth —
C.S.I.R
Miscellaneous Waite Institute Medical Institute Universities
State Agriculture Departments Other State Departments Industries
Conclusion.
The purpose of this address has been to place before you the strong claim which the support of research — more particularly of pure research — has upon those of you who really wish to see our country progress.
It has not been my purpose to make the list of researches at all complete, because there is no necessity to do so.
* Address to Canadian Society of Cost Accountants and Industrial Engineers, Montreal, 29th September, 1937.
14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
An endeavour has been made to see what is the business aspect of research, and one hopes that even the hardest -headed critic on that score has been satisfied.
Those who decided over fifty years ago what the objects of this Society should be were wise men, and I feel that to them we must pay a warm tribute.
Let us see that the Royal Society of Queensland in the future continues to live up to the objects for which it was founded !
VOL. LI., No. 2.
15
THE ABSORPTION OF ACIDS BY WOOL.
By L. S. Bagster, D.Sc., and Madoline V. Connah, M.Sc.
{Bead before the Boyal Society of Queensland , 29 th Mazy, 1939.)
The absorption of acids by wool has been studied by a number of workers — e.g., Speakman et at. (1933). Such work has been chiefly concerned with single acids, and, apart from early experiments of Mills and Takamine (1883), little attention has been given to the behaviour of mixed acids. The present work was undertaken to study the absorption from solution of pairs of mixed acids. The acids employed were hydrochloric, sulphuric, acetic, and monochloracetic.
The wool used was merino from several fleeces of uniform grade from the Roma district. The sample contained body wool of wethers with no belly or skirting. It had a spinning count of 64 to 66 and yield condition about 58 per cent, scoured wool. It was rendered as uniform as possible by spreading and mixing several times before cleaning. During cleaning and sampling further spreading and mixing occurred. The raw wool was washed five times with solvent petrol, air- dried, and then washed with changes of rain water until free from dust. Between washings the material was drained in a centrifuge. It was finally sun-dried. The samples used in experiments were hand-picked to remove foreign matter. The cleaned stock wool was kept in a jar with an atmosphere of 50 per cent, relative humidity attained by placing in the vessel a container with an appropriate sulphuric acid solution. Sufficient material was taken for each experiment to contain 20 grams of dry wool. (The moisture content determined at 100° C. was very close to 12 per cent.)
The work was carried out with room temperatures of 20° to 25°C.
The samples of wool were soaked in the various combinations of acids contained in stoppered bottles, and allowed to stand for five days, by which time tests had shown that all the acid which could be absorbed had been taken up by the wool. The fact that no further acid was removed from solution after five days showed that no appreciable reaction took place between the acids and the containing vessels after preliminary treatment. The wool was stirred occasionally during the five days’ soaking. Two hundred c.c. — the quantity of solution used in the majority of the experiments — was absorbed by the wool to a loose sponge, thus giving thorough contact. Samples were withdrawn from the main body of the liquid by means of a pipette and residual acidity determined by titration against carbonate-free alkali in a quarter of the total volume of liquid, using phenol phthalein indicator. The hydrochloric acid content for mixed acids was determined by titration against silver chloride, while the sulphuric acid content was estimated gravimetrically as barium sulphate. The acetic and monochloracetic acids were determined by difference.
16 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
The results are shown in Tables I. and II.
The stock acid solutions were all very close to normal. The quantities, of stock acid used in the various experiments are shown in the tables, in column 1. Table I. gives the absorption of individual acids at different concentrations, the amount of acid being expressed in equivalents per 20 grams of wool, while the results for mixed acids are shown in Table II., where each pair of acids is represented in a double column. A and B in each column give the equivalents of individual acids absorbed.
TABLE I.
|
Acid (c.c.). |
Water (c.c.). |
Hydrochloric. |
Sulphuric. |
Acetic. |
Monochlor- acetic. |
|
400 |
1,000 |
•0139 |
•0184 |
•0070 |
•0236 |
|
•0132 |
•0184 |
•0070 |
•0234 |
||
|
200 |
1,000 |
•015 |
•019 |
•0057 |
•017 |
|
•016 |
•019 |
•0057 |
•018 |
||
|
100 |
1,100 |
•0157 |
•0146 |
•0029 |
•026 |
|
•0156 |
•0146 |
•0036 |
•026 |
||
|
400 |
0 |
•022 |
•028 |
•015 |
•040 |
|
•022 |
•028 |
•016 |
•039- |
||
|
200 |
200 |
•017 |
•023 |
•010 |
•032^ |
|
•017 |
•023 |
•010 |
•032' |
||
|
200 |
0 |
•019 |
•026 |
•015 |
•037 |
|
•020 |
•026 |
•014 |
•037 |
||
|
•018 |
•022 |
•015 |
•036; |
||
|
•018 |
•025 |
•015 |
•036; |
||
|
•025 |
|||||
|
150 |
50 |
•014 |
•021 |
•Oil |
•031 |
|
•015 |
•021 |
•Oil |
•030 |
||
|
•015 |
•024 |
•011 |
•021 |
||
|
•016 |
•023 |
•012 |
•031 |
||
|
•016 |
|||||
|
100 |
100 |
•016 |
•022 |
•0092 |
•025- |
|
•016 |
•022 |
•0088 |
•025 |
||
|
•016 |
•022 |
•0094 |
•025. |
||
|
•016 |
•022 |
•0092 |
•025- |
||
|
50 |
150 |
•016 |
•017 |
•0060 |
•017 |
|
•016 |
•016 |
•0057 |
•018. |
||
|
•019 |
•0060 |
•018: |
|||
|
•019 |
•0061 |
•018 |
|||
|
20 |
180 |
•012 |
•015 |
•0034 |
•012 |
|
•012 |
•015 |
•0034 |
•012 |
||
|
•012 |
. # |
•0034 |
•Oil |
||
|
•012 |
•0034 |
•Oil |
|||
|
10 |
190 |
•0079 |
•0088 |
•0021 |
•0076 |
|
•0079 |
•0086 |
•0023 |
•0076 |
||
|
•0080 |
•0084 |
•0025 |
•0071 |
||
|
•0080 |
•0084 |
•0021 |
•0071 |
THE ABSORPTION OF ACIDS BY WOOL.
17
TABLE II.
|
Total |
Pro- |
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
A |
B |
|
Acid c.c. |
portion. |
HC1. |
Acetic. |
HC1. |
h2so4. |
H2SO4. |
Acetic. |
HC1. |
Mono. |
H2S04. |
Mono.* |
|
200 + 1,000 |
|||||||||||
|
water . . |
100 A |
•015 |
•0009 |
•0052 |
•012 |
•018 |
•0004 |
•013 |
•0040 |
•017 |
•0023 |
|
100 B |
•014 |
•0013 |
•0052 |
•012 |
•018 |
•0005 |
•014 |
•0031 |
•017 |
•0025 |
|
|
•014 |
•0023 |
•017 |
•0017 |
||||||||
|
•014 |
•0026 |
•016 |
•0022 |
||||||||
|
400 |
200 A |
•015 |
•0057 |
•010 |
•013 |
•023 |
•0050 |
•015 |
•0175 |
•0232 |
•0110 |
|
200 B |
•015 |
•0051 |
•010 |
•013 |
•023 |
•0045 |
•013 |
•0169 |
•0232 |
•0105 |
|
|
200 |
100 A |
•015 |
•0051 |
•010 |
•010 |
•019 |
•0039 |
•015 |
•Oil |
•024 |
•0079 |
|
100 B |
•015 |
•0047 |
•Oil |
•0097 |
•019 |
•0039 |
■014 |
•Oil |
•023 |
•0089 |
|
|
•015 |
•0052 |
•Oil |
•Oil |
•022 |
•0045 |
•021 |
•Oil |
||||
|
•016 |
•0052 |
•Oil |
•Oil |
•021 |
•0045 |
•021 |
•Oil |
||||
|
•022 |
•0048 |
||||||||||
|
200 |
150 A |
•014 |
■0028 |
•012 |
•0033 |
•021 |
•0009 |
•014 |
•Oil |
•023 |
•0061 |
|
50 B 1 |
•014 |
•0032 |
•013 |
•0037 |
•021 |
•0019 |
•015 |
•Oil |
•023 |
•0062 |
|
|
! |
! |
•021 |
•0015 |
||||||||
|
I |
! |
•022 |
•0007 |
||||||||
|
200 |
50 A |
•013 |
•0032 |
•0057 |
•013 |
•015 |
•0063 |
•013 |
•017 |
•019 |
•015 |
|
150 B |
•°13 |
•0028 |
•0057 |
•013 |
•016 |
•0063 |
•013 |
•017 |
•019 |
•015 |
|
|
•015 |
•0064 |
•017 |
•016 |
||||||||
|
•015 |
•0064 |
•016 |
•016 |
||||||||
|
20 + 180 |
|||||||||||
|
water . . |
10 A |
•0073 |
•0011 |
■0043 |
•0091 |
•0089 |
•0007 |
■0075 |
•0051 |
•0094 |
•0037 |
|
10 B I |
•0073 |
•0013 |
•0044 |
•0092 |
•0089 |
•0007 |
•0074 |
•0051 |
•0097 |
•0039 |
|
|
•0075 |
•0012 |
•0043 |
•0088 |
•0073 |
■0047 |
•0093 |
•0035 |
||||
|
•0075 |
•0012 |
•0043 |
•0088 |
•0075 |
•0048 |
1 -0094 |
•0035 |
* Mono = monochloracetie acid.
A. Individual Acids, — The results of varying the concentration show that about 200 c.c. of normal acid solution are sufficient to saturate the wool though only a small proportion of the acid is actually absorbed. The amount absorbed from solutions not sufficient for saturation decreases more with dilution with the weaker organic acids in corre- sponding solution. This is in accordance with the results of Meyer and Fikentscher (1926).
The absorption of sulphuric acid at saturation is about 25 per cent, more than that of hydrochloric. Were the sulphuric behaving as a monobasic acid the absorption should have been double. The greater absorption has been found with more dilute solutions (pH greater than 24) by Elod (1933). In the present work, where the most dilute solutions were the pH of the strong acids would be less than 24.
B. Mixed Acids, — As might be expected, mixtures of hydrochloric and sulphuric acids behave very like equivalent solution of either single acid, each being absorbed nearly in proportion to its relative concentration.
The proportion of acetic acid absorbed from mixtures with strong acids is much less than corresponds with its relative concentration, but more than would be expected from its relative activity.
18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Monochloracetic acid shows the most striking variation. Alone it is absorbed to a much greater extent than hydrochloric or sulphuric acids ; mixed with these it is absorbed in much smaller proportion.
This work was carried out through a grant from funds provided to the University of Queensland by the Commonwealth Government through the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.
The authors are indebted to Miss N. McGinn who carried out some of the later experimental work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Elod (1933). Trans. Farad. Soc., Yol. 29, p. 327.
Meyer and Fikentscher (1926). Melliard Textilber, Yol. 7, p. 605.
Mills and Takamine (1883). J.C.S., Yol. 43, p. 142.
Speakman et al. (1933). Trans. Farad. Soc., Yol. 29, p. 148.
VOL. LI., No. 3.
19
HABITS AND CH/ETOTAXY OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES ATRATIPES SKUSE.
By Elizabeth N. Marks, B.Sc., Department of Biology, University of
Queensland.
Plate I.
(Delivered before the Royal Society of Queensland, 21th March, 1939.)
Although the adult of Anopheles atratipes was first described by Skuse (1889), Mackerras (1927) was the first to record the larvas, the only locality in which he found them being Dunwich, Stradbroke Island, where they were collected in September, 1926.
During September and October, 1938, larvae of this species were collected from Nudgee, Redcliffe, and Bribie Island, Queensland. At Nudgee they were found in a sluggish, slightly muddy creek with not a great deal of vegetation — a habitat corresponding toi that from which Mackerras collected them. At Redcliffe they occurred in a freshwater tea-tree (Melaleuca spp.) swamp with considerably more vegetation. At Bribie Island they were collected from water lying in small depressions in damp, peaty soil under tea-trees. In all cases larvae of Anopheles annulipes Walker and of Culex annulirostris Skuse were found in the same habitat, and at Bribie Island these were accompanied by Corethra larvae.
Mackerras gives a brief description of the distinguishing features of the larva of Anopheles atratipes, and states that there is no trace of eyes, and that the palmate hairs are greatly reduced or absent. Preparations of the larvae collected from the above localities showed an indication of eyes in the form of light areas on the darkly pigmented head, occurring at the normal site for eyes (Fig. 1, E.). Undeveloped palmate hairs also were found with slightly flattened branches.
Gater (1934) says of hair No. 1 of the abdominal segments of anopheline larvae: “When its branches are flattened, forming ‘leaflets,’ it is usually called a palmate hair, float-hair or fan, and in descriptions of larvae the palmate hairs are sometimes said to be ‘presjent’ or ‘absent’ on particular segments. Since the hair is always present on each segment, but simply differs in form, it is considered better always to refer to hair No. 1 as the palmate hair and to describe its form. When this hair is stated to be undeveloped, it means that the branch.es are filamentous; but when it is said to be fully developed, the presence of complete, flattened leaflets is implied. The branches of the palmate hairs vary in form from filaments, through slightly flattened branches and lanceolate leaflets, to fully developed leaflets ”
The palmate hairs of Anopheles atratipes were seen only with difficulty and were at first overlooked, owing to the fact that in the preparations they were practically transparent.
In view of these important divergences from the original descrip- tion, in addition to slight variations in other features, it has been deemed advisable to give a full account of the chaetotaxy of the larva of
20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Anopheles atratipes Skuse. The following description, including the numbering of the hairs, follows the plan set out by Gater. This author uses in classification, in addition to the chsetotaxy of the head, the structure and arrangement of several groups of hairs on the thorax. Unfortunately, owing to the fact that insufficient specimens were col- lected of the larvae of Anopheles bancrofti Giles and Anopheles stigmaticus Skuse, it was not possible to make a comparison of these features in the related members of the genus Anopheles.
Dorsal Hairs of the Head. (Fig. 1.)
A. — On the fronto-clypeus.
Hair No. 1 : pre-clypeal ; short, incurved, simple hair. Hair No. 2 : inner anterior clypeal ; placed close together ; simple. Hair No. 3 : outer anterior clypeal ; arise external to and in line with No. 2 ; length is two-thirds that of No. 2; simple. Hair No. 4: posterior clypeal; arise posterior to No. 3; short, not reaching to the base of No. 3; simple. Hairs Nos. 5, 6, and 7 : frontal ; arise in a row just posterior to the line of the insertion of the antennae; bases lie in a curved line; branches numerous. Hair No. 8 : sutural (inner occipital) ; four very fine branches.
B. — On the epicranial plates.
Hair No. 9: trans-sutural (outer occipital) ; arise well anterior to No. 8 ; stated by Mackerras to be trifid, but hairs with four branches and with two were also seen. Hair No. 10 : antennal ; situated slightly basal to the middle of the antenna, on the dorso-lateral surface; fully half the length of the antenna ; strongly branched. Hair No. 11 : terminal antennal; trifid. Hair No. 12: sub-antennal; just ventral to the inser- tions of the antennae ; strongly plumose. Hair No. 13 : ventral to No. 12 ; strongly plumose, and equal in size to sub-antennal. Hair No. 14 : near the larval eyes ; bifid. Hair No. 16 : on the maxillary palp, situated at its anterior third; strongly branched.
According to Gater, hair No. 15 is on the side of the head below No. 14. It was not seen in the specimens examined.
Hairs of the Thorax. (Fig. 2.)
The three thoracic segments cannot, be distinguished, but are indi- cated in the diagram by dotted lines.
A.— On the prothorax.
(a) Dorsal —
Hairs Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 3) : the inner, central, and outer hairs respectively of the sub-median prothoracic group ; No. 1 is simple ; No. 2 is branched and arises from a prominent dark root; No. 3 is simple. Hairs Nos. 4 to 7 : in that order from within outwards; No. 4 is long and strongly plumose ; No. 5, long and shortly plumose ; No. 6, long and sparsely plumose ; No. 7, the longest of the group, is strongly plumose.
(5) Ventral —
Hair No. 8: long, plumose. Hairs Nos 9 to 12 (Fig. 4): the prothoracic pleural group, consisting of an anterior pair of hairs (Nos. 9 and 10) and a posterior pair (Nos. 11 and 12) which arise from the same large tubercle ; the anterior pair is separated from the posterior
HABITS AND C HJE TOT AX Y OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES.
21
pair at the roots by a small, hardened plate arising from the tubercle and produced into a slight spine. Hair No. 9: anterior, dorsal, long, with few branches. Hair No. 10 : anterior, ventral, long, simple. Hair No. 11: posterior, dorsal, very short, simple. Hair No. 12: posterior, ventral, long (longer than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13: short, with simple branches. Hair No. 14 : shorter than No. 13, with simple branches,
Gater figures hair No. 0 — a minute hair, not easily visible, on the dorsal surface of the prothorax. It was not observed in the specimens examined.
B. — On the mesothorax.
(a) Dorsal —
Hair No. 1 : short, with simple branches. Hairs Nos. 2, 3, and 4 : simple. Hair No. 5 : short, with simple branches. Hair No. 6 : bifid. Hair No. 7 : plumose.
(b) Ventral —
Hair No. 8: long, plumose. Hairs Nos. 9 to 12 (Fig. 5): the mesothoracic pleural group. Hair No. 9 : long, may be trifid. Hair No. 10 : long, simple. Hair No. 11 : short, simple. Hair No. 12 : long (shorter than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13 : short, with simple branches. Hair No. 14: very short, trifid.
C. — On the metathorax.
(a) Dorsal —
Hair No. 1 : metathoracic palmate, undeveloped, generally with four branches. Hair No. 2 : short, with few branches. Hairs Nos. 3 and 4 : simple. Hair No. 5 : long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 6 : short, bifid or trifid. Hair No. 7 : long, strongly plumose.
(b) Ventral —
Hair No. 8: long, strongly plumose. Hairs Nos. 9 to 12 (Fig. 6) : the metathoracic pleural group. Hair No. 9 : long, with few branches. Hair No. 10 : long, simple. Hair. No. 11 : short, simple. Hair No. 12 : long (shorter than No. 10), simple. Hair No. 13: short, usually with three branches.
Hairs of the Abdomen. (Fig. 7, Fig. 10.)
On abdominal segments II. to VIII., Gater figures hair No. 0 — a minute hair lying just laterally and posteriorly to the anterior tergal plate. This hair was not observed on the specimens examined.
Segment I. —
Hair No. 1 : the abdominal palmate hair ; stout base, few branches, undeveloped. Hairs Nos. 6 and 7 : the lateral hairs ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 8 is absent. Other hairs (Nos. 2 to 13) are as shown.
Segment II. —
Hair No. 1: abdominal palmate (Fig. 8). Hairs Nos. 6 and 7 : the lateral hairs ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 8 arises anteriorly to Nos. 6 and 7. Other hairs appear as shown in the figure.
Segment III. —
Hair No. 6 : first lateral hair ; long, strongly plumose. Hair No. 7 is small and has shifted to the ventral surface. Others as shown.
22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Segment IV. —
Hair No. 1: abdominal palmate (Fig. 9). Hair No. 6 is shorter and has fewer branches than on the preceding segments. Others as shown.
Segments V. to VII. — As shown in Fig. 7.
Segments VIII., IX., and X. — As shown in Fig. 10.
The hairs on segments VIII. and IX. have shifted in the rearrange- ment of parts connected with the formation of the spiracnlar apparatus.
Segment X. (the anal segment) —
The cuticle of this segment is armed with minute spines, densest posteriorly. The saddle hair is long and simple. Outer sub-median caudal hairs slightly hooked. Inner sub-median caudal hairs strongly branched. Anal gills long, of equal lengths.
REFERENCES.
Gater, B. A. R. (1934): “Aids to the Identification of Anopheline Larvae in Malaya,” Singapore.
Mackerras, I. M. (1927) : Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., LII., p. 33.
Skuse, F. A. (1889) : Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), III.,, p. 1755.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fig. 1. — Diagram of the dorsal surface of the head capsule of Anopheles atratipes larva. Some of the hairs and other structures are marked in completely on one Side only. For the numbers of the hairs, refer to the text. A, antenna; C, collar; CF, cephalic fan; E, light patch indicating the presence of an eye; EP, epicranial plate; ES, epicranial suture ; FC, frontoclypeus. Ml, mandible ; M2, maxillary palp ; S, sabre-shaped piece on antenna.
Fig. 2. — Diagram of the thorax, showing the chaetotaxy of the dorsal surface (right-hand portion of figure) and of the ventral surface (left-hand portion of figure). P, prothorax ; MS, mesothorax; MT, metathorax.
Fig. 3. — Sub-median prothoracic hairs (enlarged).
Fig. 4. — Prothoracic pleural hairs (enlarged).
Fig. 5. — Mesothoracic pleural hairs (enlarged).
Fig. 6. — Metathoracic pleural hairs (enlarged).
Fig. 7. — Diagram of abdominal segments I. to VII. Right-hand portion shows dorsal hairs; left-hand portion shows ventral hairs. In the mounted specimens the abdominal palmate hairs appeared practic- ally transparent. AT, anterior tergal plate of segment I.
Fig. 8. — Abdominal palmate hair from segment II., x200.
Fig. 9. — Abdominal palmate hair from segment IV., x200.
Fig. 10. — Diagram of the anal or Xth segment of the abdomen, segment IX., and the posterior portion of segment VIII., side view. AG, anal gills; F, fan-shaped plate overhanging spiracles; H, hooks on outer sub-median caudal hairs; I, inner sub-median caudal hair; L, lateral papilla of spiracular apparatus, marking the division between
Peoc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, Vol. LIv No. 3.
Plate I.
Setal characters in the Larva of Anopheles atratipes Skuse.
HABITS AND CH2ET0TAXY OF THE LARVA OF ANOPHELES.
23
segments VIII. and IX. ; O, outer sub-median caudal hair ; P, post- spiracular hair (No. 9 of segment IX.) ; S, saddle (anterior tergal plate of segment X.) ; SA, spiracular apparatus; SC, scoop of spiracular apparatus; SH, saddle hair; SP, spiracular pecten; V, ventral caudal hairs, approximately half the total number being shown; 5 to 10, 13, hairs of corresponding numbers on segment VIII. (anteriorly) and segment IX. (6, 8 posteriorly).
24
VOL. LI., No. 4.
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES OF QUEENSLAND.
By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., ^Walter and Eliza Elall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland.
INTRODUCTION.
In North-Eastern Australia, approximately that area lying within the boundaries of the State of Queensland, is to be found a wide variety of plant-communities, from very heavy rain-forest to desert, and from mangrove forest to high mountain scrub and moorland. The relation- ships of many of these communities, both between themselves and to other factors, are particularly interesting, and in this paper it is pro- posed to offer interpretations to some of these relationships. The communities to be found in the inland areas have been described and discussed in a previous paper (Blake, 1938), the rain-forests have been discussed by Domin (1910) and Francis (1929), but many of the important communities in the region have not yet been satisfactorily described, and some are but poorly known.
GENERAL FEATURES.
The most important factors influencing vegetation in the region are the nature of the soil and available moisture. Soil type is chiefly dependent on rock-type, modified and sometimes controlled by climate in the coastal and subcoastal areas, but apparently almost or quite independent of it in the interior. Topography may also be a modifying factor, but where this does not enter into things the lines of demarca- tion of soil types and the vegetation types supported thereby are often amazingly sharp. The available moisture depends in some degree on the amount of rainfall, more so on its distribution (mean annual rainfall has comparatively little significance except in extremes, chiefly in the lower end of the scale), on the retentive capacity and the depth of the latter, and on drainage. Rate of evaporation is a powerful modifying factor. Temperature affects the development of communities to some extent, though chiefly as extremes, such as at high altitudes.
One very interesting feature which controls the distribution of the communities of the interior is afforded by the peculiar topography of the country. The slope, and therefore the flow of the rivers is in a general south-west direction towards the centre of the continent. This is almost at right angles to the trend of the isohyets, so that the streams, flowing through progressively drier and flatter country, tend to lose themselves in extensive flood plains. Furthermore, across the direction of flow of these rivers in the middle part of their courses, but not at right angles with them, is a large system of sandstone hills, ranges, and table- lands through which the streams pass, usually by means of valleys of greater or less width, or very occasionally by means of steep gorges. The slopes of these hills are mostly very steep and erosion goes on at a relatively rapid rate, so that after storms and heavy showers a supply of silt is regularly delivered to the main streams to be deposited later over the flood plains of their lower courses.
* Read before Section M, Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, Canberra Meeting, Jan., 1939.
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 25
It is on these silt plains, watered by the periodical floods from the rains falling over the upper parts of the watersheds, that there is developed the diversified and economically valuable vegetation of the channel country, consisting of fringing forest, swamps, claypans, and luxuriant herb meadow. The existence of the formation depends, not on the amount of rain falling over the area, but on the water retained in the soil during and after the subsidence of flood waters.
RAIN FOREST.
The antithesis of this is shown by the rain forest or jungle of the eastern coastal belt, chiefly developed in areas where the yearly rainfall is 60 inches or over, more or less evenly distributed, and which are not unduly exposed to gales. Rain forest may be developed in places with a considerably lower rainfall provided that edaphic conditions com- pensate for this lack, as along stream banks, in sheltered valleys, and upon the deep red loams so characteristic of the basalt-capped tablelands and ranges of the coastal districts. The effect of exposure to sea breezes is well seen near Cape Moreton. Here, with a fairly evenly distributed yearly rainfall of 63 inches but on a shallow sandy soil exposed to every gale, a low shrubbery allied to wallum is developed, scarcely 2 feet high and sometimes lower. The chief woody plants are Casuarina suberosa and Banksia a&rnula, species which are normally trees, but are here overtopped by grasses (chiefly Themeda australis) though fruiting freely. In less exposed places the shrubs are higher and Tristania conferta , a prominent member of the rain-forest ecotone, comes in, firstly as a small shrub.
All rain forest is characterised by a wealth of lianas and epiphytes and the nearly or complete absence of annuals. In the very wet regions the numbers and variety of these epiphytes and lianas are enormous, but in developments in relatively low rainfall they are few, while the characteristic Hymenophyllaceae disappear.
The forest canopy usually consists of two or more stories, the net result of which is that the floor is densely shaded, though the individual trees in each story may be relatively widely spaced.
MONSOON FOREST AND BRIGALOW SCRUB.
In regions with a smaller and less equable water-supply, monsoon forest may be developed. Such forest is to be found in places through- out the coastal and sub-coastal areas from at least near the New South Wales border northwards, and in the country surrounding the Gulf of Carpentaria. In the northern parts a pronounced dry winter season and in the south the cold of the winter affects the continuity of the water supply. The communities usually occur on hillsides or hilltops, and in the limestone region in the Chillagoe-Mungana district, they occupy the karst hills as well as granite slopes. As in other community- types in the region, variations in composition occur, and though these are often considerable the general features remain fairly constant. These are essentially an upper story of broad-leaved deciduous or partly deciduous trees, an understory of dense, evergreen, sometimes prickly shrubs and small trees with rather small and hard leaves, one or two somewhat shrubby grasses, and a paucity of lianas and epiphytes. The latter are almost restricted to bryophytes and lichens. The relation- ships with the open forest in which the communities are often found
26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
are not understood. They often occupy sites apparently similar to others occupied by Eucalyptus forest, yet there is frequently and, perhaps, usually a remarkable absence of ecotone.
Brigalow scrub has usually been regarded as a community of the semi-arid type, but its affinities appear to lie with monsoon forest of which it may be regarded as an extreme phase. The term “scrub” in Queensland is usually applied to a community in which the woody plants grow very close together, and is used irrespective of their size. Thus rain forest and monsoon forest are both popularly referred to as “scrub,” sometimes with the distinction of “vine scrub” for the former and “dry scrub” for the latter.
In a well-developed brigalow scrub the trees attain 30 feet or more, and associated are species commonly found in monsoon forests, such as the deciduous trees Br achy chit cm rupestre and B. triaho siphon, the smaller hard-leaved evergreens Canthium vaccinifolium, Celastrus sp., Cappans nobilis, and the shrubby grasses Panicum uncinulatum and Eragrostis megalosperma. The dominant species of the “scrub” are the brigalow itself (Acacia i harpophylla) which is leafless (phyllodineous) except in the seedling stage, and the belah ( Casuarina lepidophloia) which has minute scale-leaves only. The richer scrubs differ little from monsoon forest except that the brigalow, with or without belah, replaces one or more of the trees of the upper story of the latter.
Relatively pure stands of brigalow are to be found, and in most such cases the trees are low.
In South Queensland, brigalow scrub is commonly found on a nearly black very heavy soil in which depressions known as “melon- holes” or “gilgais” are numerous and often are of considerable size. Jensen (1921-1922) has claimed that the heavy nature of the soil is due to a relatively high content of sodium carbonate, and has further postu- lated that brigalow requires a soda-rich soil. Many of Jensen’s claims can be refuted by evidence from the very area he traversed — Roma and northwards. My own observations would indicate that brigalow has no very particular soil requirements and it is not uncommon to find communities on stony ridges and even on sand. It is, however, quite certain that brigalow scrub is a distinctly aggressive community and will invade and suppress both open forest and grassland. Pure stands of brigalow usually indicate a young community. As the community ages, the nature of the soil changes to the characteristic blackish, heavy, melon-holey soil. When the community invaded was forest on sandy soil this change is very marked. Old stumps of box ( Eucalyptus populifolia) within tall scrub now indicates areas thus invaded, though various stages can be seen in many localities. Historial records afford further evidence. When grassland is invaded the changes are, as a rule, not so marked, owing to the nature of the grassland soil from which, however, melon-holes are absent. This invasion is proceeding westward into relatively dry areas (within the 15-inch isohyet) and this will be noticed again later.
OPEN FOREST, SPINIFEX COUNTRY, AND WALLUM.
Open forest in some form or other occupies large areas of North- Eastern Australia. The term forest is used here in rather a wide sense and includes the savannah forest, savannah woodland, and wood- land of various authors. Owing to the diverse use of the word
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 27
‘ ‘ Savannah ’ ’ it has seemed preferable not to employ it in this connec- tion. Genuine forest certainly occurs in many places, particularly in areas within which rain forest is developed, and not infrequently the canopy is practically closed. Edaphic conditions, possibly assisted by fire, prevent the establishment of rain forest. In the other extreme the trees are scattered and often irregular. The term “parkland” is used to designate this phase, but it is suggested that some such term as “semi-forest” could be employed to designate the very common state of affairs in which the trees are somewhat distant but by no means scattered. As thus employed, the different terms forest, semi-forest, and parkland, have merely a physiognomic significance. In many places all gradations occur with no apparent difference other than tree-frequency.
Open forests are developed chiefly on soils of light texture, though a clayey subsoil may be present. Parkland occasionally occurs on soils of heavier texture, though such are usually shallow and the community is often an ecotone between forest and grassland. Myrtaceae are usu- ally dominant in these forests, commonly species of Eucalyptus , Melaleuca, Trisiania, Angophora, and Syncarpia. Practically all species are evergreen. Towards the North Grevillea becomes prominent, like- wise a few deciduous trees such as species of Terminalia and Albizzia, and annual herbs become more numerous.
Towards the drier parts in the South, open forest passes gradually into mulga scrub, and in the wetter parts generally it passes into, or is replaced by, rain forest. If there is a broad ecotone it frequently consists of a tall, almost closed forest of Eucalyptus grandis and Tris- tania conferta. Near the rain-forest edge is an undergrowth of shrubs and trees partly belonging to rain-forest species, partly to species almost restricted to the ecotone. If edaphic differences are not too extreme in such cases there is a tendency for the rain forest to advance. In the very wet parts of the north-east edaphic factors are not so important, and rain forest has been advancing rather rapidly within historical times, modifying the nature of the soil somewhat in its progress, chiefly by the addition of humus and the slowing down of leaching processes.
The ecotone, however, is often very narrow, and this is especially seen in many parts of South-Eastern Queensland where a common occurrence is for sandstone or trachyte mountains and tablelands to be capped with basalt. The latter produces a deep red loam which supports rain forest. The sandstone and trachyte give rise to sandy often shallow soils and support open forest. Occasionally an ecotone is present when conditions are modified somewhat by slope or exposure.
More closely allied to the open forests than to any other formation are the majority of the Triodia- dominant communities usually referred to as “spinifex country.” Much of this spinifex country is merely open forest, chiefly Eucalyptus forest, in which, owing to slight varia- tions in edaphic factors, Triodia dominates or partly replaces the usual grasses of the forest floor. Of such a nature is much of the spinifex country in the so-called “desert country” of Central Queensland.* The species of Triodia, many of which are undescribed, usually grow on a highly siliceous substrate, either sand or such rocks as sandstone and granite. Occasionally communities are developed on silt beds subject
* This so-called desert is open forest to parkland supported by sandy soils, and much of it is little different in aspect from some coastal communities.
28
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
to flooding, and near the Gulf of Carpentaria they extend into swampy areas, the species being associated with coolibah ( Eucalyptus microtheca)- or tea-tree ( Melaleuca spp.).
Another group of communities, collectively known as "wallum country,” occurs along the east coast on sandy soil, consisting of swamps, Melaleuca forests, heath-like shrub-lands (wallum flats), and mixed forest. The communities are well known floristically, but their exact relationships are not quite clear. Drainage appears to be an important factor, the succession from wet to dry being open swamp, Melaleuca swamp, Melaleuca forest, wallum flats, open forest with undergrowth (wallum scrub), open forest with little undergrowth. Melaleuca forest is often present only as a narrow band, and one or other of the communities may not be developed. There is sometimes also a tendency to the development of rain forest, either direct from Melaleuca swamp or forest, or through wallum scrub.
Related to wallum in floristic composition and physiognomy is a series of communities developed on and near the crest of certain parts of the Great Dividing Range and its offshoots where the underlying rock is granite or sandstone or other highly siliceous rock. What soil there is, is of course sandy, but it is often very shallow and the surface of the ground is often broken and occasionally rugged. iOne or other species of Triodia is often associated and it may well be that the wallum country is the east-coast equivalent of the inland spinifex country.
GRASSLAND AND STEPPE.
The extensive grasslands of the interior are to be found on heavy brown, grey, or black soils, chiefly in areas with a mean annual rainfall not greatly exceeding 30 inches. In the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, broad-leaved deciduous small trees are usually prominent and the communities answer very well to descriptions and photographs of the "orchard country” of Tropical Africa (Tansley, 1926). There is usually a broad ecotone between the communities and the more pre- valent open forest. The nature of the soil, dependent on the underlying rock, is the governing factor.
Further south there is practically no ecotone between grassland and forest, and the amazingly sharp division between these formations to the west of the Great Dividing Range in Central Queensland is one of the most remarkable features in the region and what must be one of the most remarkable features of its kind anywhere. Forest trees occa- sionally stray into the blue-grass country which is found chiefly to the east of the Divide or in the south. In Mitchell grass country, however, if one excepts the ubiquitous gidgea ( Acacia Cawibagei) , the few scat- tered trees which are found in certain places are not trees usually found in forests.
Over much of the grassland areas the rainfall varies considerably from year to year, and this variation sometimes affects the vegetation considerably. But variations occur which are at least partly inde- pendent of rainfall. Firstly the annual and ephemeral members of the associations vary in nature and relative frequency from year to year. One year a certain species may be physiognomically dominant, in the following year an entirely different species takes its place, while the former may be rare or virtually absent for some years, and then again suddenly assume dominance. Stocking certainly affects this "seasonal dominance” to a considerable extent but is not entirely responsible for
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 29
it, as records indicate that it occurred before settlement took place. Just what are the governing factors is not yet known, though an after- ripening period of the seed, incidence of rainfall, and the soil changes discussed below may be among the most important.
These changes in the frequency of the annual members of the grass- lands have a counterpart in the more subtle but profound variations in the perennial composition of the communities. As the result of long-period cyclic changes, there occurs in some districts a fluctuation between blue grass-dominant and Mitchell grass-dominant communities, and in other districts a comparable fluctuation between Mitchell grass- dominant communities and herb-steppe. To these systems the term li fluctuating climax” has been applied, as it is believed that at any given time the community is essentially in equilibrium with its environment (Blake, 1938).
The complete mechanism is not yet clear, but on the evidence avail- able it seems that the changes go on independently of rainfall and stocking, but are influenced by each. The most important factor seems to be bound up with cyclic changes in the nature of the soil, particularly in regard to its salt content. It is now a well-established fact that in soils of arid and semi-arid regions there is a tendency for salts to accumulate in the upper parts of the goil (Yageler, 1933). It is pre- sumed that each of the dominant species, Dichanthium sericeum, Asirebla spp., and the chenopodiaceous members of the herb steppe, has a definite upper limit of tolerance to salinity. When this concentration is approached in any locality, the dominant species (and the community) is replaced by the community with a higher tolerance. (In the extreme case, salt desert would be produced. This condition is not attained in Queensland, but an approach to it is to be seen in the claypans of the far south-west, and parts of the stony desert are probably comparable). Later, the salt content decreases and the communities of lower tolerance can then establish themselves. Alternes are not infrequent as inter- mediate stages, but often the changes appear to take place with remarkable suddenness.
Removal of salt could take place either by the removal of the plants themselves, or by the action of water. Heavy showers of rain would wash surface and subsurface salt to lower ground (where claypans so often occur) or down the cracks in the soil itself.
THE DESERT.
In the truly desert parts of the region, there are two very diverse developments. The Stony Desert is little less than the most arid extreme of the gravelly downs with which it is more or less complementary through herb steppe. The sandhill region, commonly known as the Arunta Desert until it was renamed Simpson Desert by Madigan, has been described from various standpoints by different writers (Blake, 1938, Madigan, 1936, and Ratcliffe, 1936, 1937). Whatever may be its. origin — and I believe with Madigan that the Desert Sandstone has pro- duced the bulk of the sand — and whatever may be the factors controlling its extent, there seems little doubt that the north-eastern portion is essentially stable. There is no sharp boundary line. Beyond the desert proper, dunes occur to the east and north, either as isolated ridges or as groups of ridges. Those near the desert proper are included in what Ratcliffe has called the “ marginal country,” but there is a far wider occurrence of these scattered ridges than this, extending eastward as
R.S. — B
30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
they do almost to the Great Dividing Range. As their distance east and north from the desert increases, the dunes become smaller and smaller and gradually more widely scattered, until finally they degene- rate to mere mounds of sand. There is likewise a progressive change in the vegetation supported by these dunes, passing from the character- istic vegetation of the desert with its Spinifex paradoxus , Triodia, Acacia ligulata, &c., and annuals, through hop-bush ( Dodonaea ) and mulga scrub to cypress pine ( CalDitris ) forest in the south, and Eucalyptus forest or mixed forest further north. When one considers the apparent stability of the whole, the evidences of considerable age of the dunes in the marginal country, such as their occurrence between river channels and the presence of small lakes within some groups of them, the nature and density of the trees and shrubs upon the isolated dunes, one is forced to the conclusion that these dunes are the -remnants of a desert which at one time occupied a much larger area than it does to-day.
And there appears to be no evidence for a present expansion of the desert. The boundaries of this appear to be defined by the direction of the prevailing winds and by river channels. There is no evidence of particular instability at the desert margin either as to sand or vegeta- tion. The facts hitherto adduced as evidence of increasing aridity and desert advance are quite readily explained in other ways. Sandstorms are a natural phenomenon of such regions, and sand accumulates only where there is some obstruction, such as a fence or building. There is no record or other evidence that a new sandhill has been formed elsewhere.
The great rivers of the interior — Cooper ’s Creek, the Diamantina, the Mulligan — used to pour their flood waters into Lake Eyre, but rarely reach the lake now. This seems to be due to the fact that the flood plains and channel beds are being gradually built up by the normal deposition of silt, so that it is becoming increasingly difficult for the stream, always very slow in this excessively flat area, to force its way along, and it usually loses itself over the plain. The dying-off of trees along the channels, which is so often stressed, may be due in part to old age and partly to this same raising of the river bed further upstream.
Evidence of another nature is afforded by brigalow scrub. It has been shown above that this association is akin to relatively wet-country communities and is at present extending westward. This westward extension would scarcely occur if the interior were drying up.
THE BIOTIC FACTOR.
So far little has been said as to the relationships of the communities to man. In many places settlement has resulted in the complete destruc- tion of the indigenous vegetation, which has been replaced by orchards, farms, artificial pastures, &c. Open forest has often been thinned out to parkland or even grassland by removal of trees, and in hilly country the increased run-off thus induced has resulted in soil erosion becoming a real menace. Soil erosion is even more pronounced where steep hill- sides (sometimes originally clad with rain forest) have been given over to banana farms. In the cleared or partly cleared forest country, the herbaceous vegetation is usually more or less modified by the presence of exotic species, sometimes as the result of deliberate planting. Briga- low scrub is being removed in places to make way for argiculture or induced or artificial grassland. In pastoral districts, the white man’s introduced animals are affecting the vegetation to a greater or less
THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF THE PLANT COMMUNITIES, ETC. 31
extent, and where overstocking has been common, definite communities have resulted. The primitive communities react to stocking in such diverse ways that it would require much more time to discuss them than is available. From an economic point of view, the changes wrought by heavy stocking are not always adverse. Definite improvement in pasture has been noticed to result from heavy stocking in some districts. Extremely adverse reactions are to be observed along stock routes, and it would seem that in many cases these are due to salt-poisoning as the result of the excessive manuring and urination the ground receives as much as to trampling and over-grazing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Blake, S. T. (1936) : The Plant Communities of Western Queensland and their Relationships, with Special Reference to the Grazing Industry. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., xlix., pp. 156-204:, plates vii.-xxvi.
Domin, K. (1910): Queensland’s Plant Associations. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl., xxiii., pp. 57-74.
Francis, W. D. (1929) ; Australian Rain Forest Trees, Brisbane.
Jensen, H. I. (1921, 1922): Some Notes on the Soils and Forest Flora of the Dividing Range — North of Roma. Queensl. Agr. Journ., xvi., pp. 239-242. 297-299, 358-361; xvii., pp. 13-18.
Madigan, C. T. (1936) : The Australian Sand-ridge Deserts. Geogr. Rev., xxvi., pp. 205-227.
Ratcliffe, F. N. (1936) : Soil Drift in the Arid Pastoral Areas of South Australia. Coun. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Pamphlet 64.
(1937) : Further Observations on Soil Erosion and Soil Drift, with
Special Reference' to South-Western Queensland. Counc. Sci. Ind. Res. Aust., Pamphlet 70.
Tansley, A. G., in Tansley & Chipp (1926) : Aims and Methods in the Study of Vegetation. London.
Vageler, P. (1933) : An Introduction to Tropical Soils. English translation by H. Green.
32
VOL. LI., No. 5.
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
By S. T. Blake, M.Sc., Walter and Eliza Hall Fellow in Economic Biology, University of Queensland.
In this paper there is presented a continuation of the work com- menced some few years ago on the revision of the Australian Cyperaceae, and upon which three papers have already appeared.* During this period three important monographs, one on the genus Cy perns (sens, lat.) and one on Schoenus, both by Dr. G. Kiikenthal, and one on Eleo- charis by Dr. H. K. Svenson, have appeared. In the monograph on Cyperus Dr. Kiikenthal has done most excellent work on a very difficult group and has undoubtedly paved the way for a better understanding of the genus. Unfortunately, as in so many other monographs prepared in Europe, many of the Australian groups have been unsatisfactorily treated, even making allowance for the omission of many species recently observed. It has been my good fortune to examine at leisure all the major collections in Australia, as well as to study in the field and to collect specimens of the great majority of forms at present known to occur in the continent. For the past two years I have been in close correspondence with Dr. Kiikenthal and I wish to pay tribute to his unfailing courtesy and kindness.
Much work still remains to be done on the Australian species of Cyperus before a really satisfactory account of the genus can be pre- pared, and in this paper only some of the new species are described, with notes on others. The same applies to the other genera mentioned.
My sincere thanks are extended to the directors of the various Australian herbaria, through the courtesy of whom I have been able to study a very large number of specimens. All specimens cited have been examined, and the herbaria in which they are deposited are indicated by the abbreviations proposed for international usage by Lanjouw in Chronica Botanica, v., pp. 142-150 (1939). Where there is no special indication, the specimens are in the Queensland Herbarium, Brisbane, where the types of my new species are deposited. Duplicates have been, or are in the process of being, distributed to various herbaria.
Cyperus rupicolus S. T. Blake sp. nov. nullae specie! alteri arete affinis, inter australienses culmis longe foliatis, foliis numerosis longis latisque, glumis deltoideis, stylo stigmatibusque fimbriolato, nuce anguste ovata acuta distinctissima.
Perennis , caespites magnos densissimos virides formans. Culmi firmi, erecti vel suberecti vel habitationis causa saepissime subnutantes, acute triquetri, lateribus plani vel leviter concavi (in vivo plani nitidi) crebre striatuli, angulis sub apice saepe scabridis exceptis laevissimi, plerumque 00-100 cm. longi, apice 2-J-4£ mm. lati, per -J—J longitudinis foliati sed nodis omnibus basi incrassata sitis. Folia 5-12 ; vaginae herbaceae vel inferiores membranaceae brunnescentes, arctae, triquetrae, tenuiter pluristriatae, plerumque laminiferae, superiores ore postice breviter
* Notes on Australian Cyperaceae I. These Proceedings, xlviii., 89-94 (1937) ; Notes on Australian Cyperaceae II. These Proceedings, xlix., 1.54-155 (1938) ; Mono- graph of the genus Eleocharis in Australia and New Zealand. These Proceedings, 1., 88-132 (1939).
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
33
ovatae inferiores truncate, vel infimae fissae; laminae lineares vel inferiores ± lanceolatae, prope apicem gradatim acutatae, subplanae vel marginibus ± arete revolutae, subrigide herbaceae, virides, creberrime plurinerves, carinatae, carina angusta sursum marginibusque scaberulae ceterae laeves, 6-9 mm. latae, summa culmum superans, inferiores gradatim breviores obtusioresque, infimae saepe brevissimae. Bract eae plures, inferiores 6-8, subaequales longissimae, foliis similes sed laxiores, superiores gradatim angustiores scabriores. Anthela decomposita, densior laxiorve, pluriradiata. Radii gracillimi, compressi, subconcavo- convexi, striati, laeves, e prophyllo usque ad 12 mm. longo ore d= oblique secto orti, 6-8 inferiores subaequales usque ad 18 cm. longi. Bracteolae setaceae usque ad 5 mm. longae vel brevissimae. Radioli primarii 1-plures, subaequales, approximati, filiformes, usque ad 26 mm. longi; radioli secundarii 0-2, breves vel brevissimi. Spiculae brunneae vel sanguineae, 1-3-nim digitatae, patentes, late lineares vel oblongae, obtusae, subcompressae, 7-10 mm. longae, 2-5-3-5 mm. latae, 7-12 florae. Rhachilla persistens, subvalida, recta, profunde excavata, marginibus tenuis, exalata. Glumae subdense imbricatae, deltoideo-ovatae, sub- obtusae, mucronatae, apice patulae, leviter 7-9-nerves, carinatae, carina laevi inf erne incurva sursum excurva vix vel brevissime excur rente, dorso tenuiter coriaceae margines glabras integras versus hyalinae, 3-34 mm. longae. Stamina 3 filamenta ligulata, antherae lineares 1-2-1-7 mm. longae, appendice rubra subulata setosa 045-0-2 mm. longa inclusa. Stylus complanatus tenuis, ca. 1 mm. longus, cum stigmatibus 3 longis- simis dense fimbriolatus. Nux brunnea lucida, anguste ovata, longe pyramido-acuta, triquetra, vix compressa, angulis acuta, lateribus subplanis punctulata cellulis extimis minutis, 1-5-1-7 mm. longa, 0-7-0-75 mm. lata.
Queensland. — Moreton District : MacPherson Range : Moran ’s Falls, Feb., 1912, White ; Moran’s Falls, forming large green tussocks on the exposed top and face of the cliff, ca. 3,000 ft., May 24th, 1937, Blake 13000 (Type in Bri.) ; Lamington National Park, Feb., 1919, White ; Coomera Gorge, among rocks, 1,000-1,900 ft., October 10th, 1939, Blake 14119 ; Mt. Tenduragan near Numinbah, on exposed sheer rock faces, 1,800-2,000 ft., October 10th, 1938, Blake 13856.
This handsome species is very distinct from all other Australian species, and indeed from any other species I have seen. Dr. Kukenthal has suggested an affinity with the African C. derreilema Steud. among the Diffusi, a species which I have not seen, but it differs from that section in that the leaves have only one and not three prominent nerves, in the shape of the glumes, and apparently also in the very long uppermost leaf-sheath and fibriolate style and stigmas.
Cyperus semifertilis S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Incurvos Kiikenth. ponenda et O. filipedi Bentli. et C. disjuncto C. B. Clarke affinis, sed ab hac anthela normali haud disjuncta, radiis filiformibus elongatis, nuce glumam adaequante vel subsuperante ; ab ilia habitu, foliis caulinis pluribus bene evolutis, anthelae bracteis radiisque pauci- oribus; ab utraque spiculis viridibus pallescentibusve androgynis vel nonnunquam masculis differt.
Rhizoma horizontaliter repens, ramosum, lignosum, in intervallis brevibus culmos florentes agens. Culmi 30-55 cm. alti, graciles, stricti, acute triquetri, marginibus acutis scaberulis exceptis glabri laevesque.
34 PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Folia 4-7 culmi basi sita, graminea, herbacea, plana vel marginibus d= revoluta, linearia, apicem versus gradatim acutata, basi haud angustata, carinata et crebre plurinervia, carina marginibusque sursum scaberulis exceptis glabra laeviaque, 2-5-4 mm. lata, superiora culmum longe super- antia, inferiora gradatim breviora ; vaginae purpureae, inf eriores elaminatae. Anthela simplex, laxa, pauciradiata ; bracteae 2-3, foliis subsimiles sed angustiores, 1-2 anthelam longe superantes, ima basi suberecta; radii (ima a ceteris rarissime distans) 1-3 inaequales, usque ad 5 cm. longi, triquetro-filiformes, glabri laevesque, spica centrali haud raro prominule pedunculata, vel raro anthela ad spiculas 1-3 digitatim confertas in apice culmi redacta. Spiculae in apice radiorum 1-6 digi- tatim confertae, virides vel stramineae, lineari-lanceolatae zb aeuminatae vel lineares, vix compressae, plerumque 6-14 mm. vel raro usque ad 20 mm. longae, 1-2-2-5 mm. latae. Bhachilla persistens, rigida, recta, profunde excavata, exalata. Glumae spissae, ovatae, obtusae, brevissime cuspidatae vel submuticae, herbaceo-membranaceae, concavae, haud carinatae, apicem versus incurvae, 9-13-nerves, 1 -6-1-7 mm. longae, 1-2 imae vacuae, -4-9 succedentes florem hermaphroditem ceterae florem masculinum foventes, vel nonnunquam flores omnes masculi. Stamina 3; filamenta linearia ligulata, inferne paullo angustata; antherae oblongo-lineares, apice minute setosae, 0-8-1-1 mm. longae. Stylus brevis latusque, 3 mm. longus; stigmata 3 duplo longiora. Nux brunnea, vix nitida, elliptica, apice subpyramidata minute vel vix apiculata, trigona, a dorso admodum compressa, angulo dorsali haud distineto lateralibus zb acutis, lateribus convexula vel subplana, minute punctu- lata cellulis extimis hexagonis minutis admodum prominulis, glumam subsuperans, 1-6-1-7 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata.
Queensland. — Moreton District : Mt. Tamborine, in Tristania
conferta-Eucalyptus grandis forest, 1,300 ft., forming small green patches, June 1st, 1937, Blake 13078 (Type in Bri.).
Readily distinguished from all other Australian species of the genus by the somewhat acuminate androgynous spikelets, the male part of which is pale brownish and the lower hermaphrodite part green. It somewhat resembles 0. trinervis R. Br. of the Gradies in general appear- ance but the latter is densely tufted, the glumes are 3-nerved and keeled, and the nut is much smaller. It shares with C. disjunctus R. Br. the pecularity of having the one or two lowermost (true) glumes quite empty.
(Since this paper went to press this species has been collected in two further localities in the Moreton District, namely: Springbrook, in Tristania conferta forest on steep hillside, 1,100-1,900 feet., 8th October, 1939, Blake 14118; Mount Glorious, very common at edge of rain-forest in Tristania conferta — dominant forest, 1,500- 2,200 feet ; or among rocks on creek banks in fringing forest, extending down to 700 feet, at least on south-western slope, 31st December, 1939, and 1st January, 1940, Blake 14126. Except that a few specimens in the latter collection have leaves as narrow as 1.5 mm., the material matches that of the type.)
Cyperus sculptus S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Graciles C. B. Clarke ponenda et C. gracili R. Br. affinis, sed habitu admodum graeiliore, spiculis angustioribus, nuce ellipsoidea laxe reticulata differt.
Perennis, viridis, dense caespitosa, rhizomate brevissimo. Culmi setacei, trigoni sed angulis striati, glabri laevesque, usque ad 25 cm. longi (rarissime longiores), erecti vel patentes. Folia caulina pauca, basi culmi sita, eorum vaginae tenues, inferiores zb scariosae, brunneae, elaminiferae, superiores 1-2 laminiferae; laminae carinatae, plerumque convolutae, (applanatae) 0-6-0-8 mm. latae, facie superiore praeter
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
35
carinam prominule 2-4-nerves, facie superiore enerves marginibus incrassatae, prope apicem subacutam marginibus nervisque minute scabridulae, cnlmo fere semper multo breviores, raro usque ad 8 cm. longae, nonnunquam brevissimae vel ad mucronem redactae. Bracteae 2-3, inaequales, foliis similes, 2 inflorescentiam longe superantes, ima usque ad 9 cm. longa. Spiculae 1-10 in apice culmi digitatim confertae, lineari-oblongae vel lineares, obtusae, subcompressae, marginibus serru- latae, virides vel fulvo-tinctae, plerumque 7-10 mm. longae, 1-8-2-2 mm. latae, 14-20-florae. Rhachilla persistens, subvalida, recta, valde applanata, profunde excavata, marginibus tenuis sed haud alata. Gluma& subdense imbricatae, apice patulae, ovatae, obtusae, cuspidatae, carinatae, carina crassa in mucronem brevem excurvum excurrente, in utroque latere membranaceae, pallidae, valide 3-5-nerves, margines versus albo-hyalinae, 1-6-1-9 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae parvae, lineares, apiculatae, 04 mm. longae. Stylus brevis, 0-35 mm. longus, stigmatibus 3 longioribus. Nux late ellipsoidea, utrinque acutata ± acuminata, conspicue trigona, angulis obtusis baud costatis, lateribus leviter concava vel fere plana, omnino brunnea, nitidula, valde laxeque reticulata, cellulis extimis hexagonis majusculis marginibus prominule elevatis, 1 mm. longa, 0-65 mm. lata.
Queensland. — Port Curtis District; Rockhampton, on alluvial flats in open Eucalyptus forest, March 5th, 1937, Blake 12704 (Type in Bri.) ; near Rockhampton on rocky rather steep slopes of Mt. Berserker in open forest, 300-700 ft., March 4th, 1935, Blake 7894. Wide Bay District : near Bundaberg, in and at edge of rain forest, April 25th, 1936, Blake 11284. Moreton District : Petrie, in damp shady places near North Pine River, April 10th, 1932, Blake 1191 ; Moggill, Bris- bane, by roadside in shade, March 10th, 1934, Blake 5279; Northgate, Brisbane, on sandy loam in rather sheltered or damp places, common, December 17th, 1934, Blake 7158; Kangaroo Point, Brisbane, January, 1907, White ; Brisbane, University grounds, a weed of damp places, April 28th, 1932, Blake 1208; in rather damp shady places, June 14th, 1932, Blake 1348, 1349 ; Brisbane Botanic Gardens, in rather damp shady places, June 14th 1932, Blake 1350; Rocklea Creek, Brisbane, in a damp somewhat shady place, May 30th, 1932, Blake and Greenham in Herl). Blake 1305a ; Sunnybank, near Brisbane, in damp shady places, December 7th, 1933, Blake 4996 ; Goodna, near Brisbane, on damp shady banks in the ecotone between Eucalyptus forest and rain forest, April 18th, 1932, Blake 1199 ; Ipswich, on Denmark Hill, on grassy slopes on sandy loam, January 24th, 1933, Cribb ; Mt. Ernest in grassy places at the foothills, October 8th, 1932, Blake 1402.
In its very slender habit and narrow spikelets this species has the aspect of C. mirus C. B. Clarke but the nervature of the glumes is similar to that of C. gracilis R. Br., while the nut is markedly different from both.
Cyperus cristulatus S. T. Blake sp. nov. C. flaccido R. Br. inter sect. Gradies C. B. Clarke afflnis, sed glumarum carina sursum alulata cristulataque differt.
Annua, parva, pallide viridis. Culmi perpauci caespitosi vel singuli, strict!, 2-9 cm. long!, triquetri sed setacei (usque ad 0-5 mm.
36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
lati), glabri laevesque, saepe ± striatuli, solum basi foliati. Folia caulina 1-2, culmum dimidium superantia vel ejus apicem nonnunquam atting- entia, angustissime linearia, acuta, glaberrima laevissimaque, facie superiore plana vel fere plana, enervia, marginibus incrassata, facie inferiore carinata, et praeter carinam tenuiter 2-4-nervia, apicem versus triquetra, 0*5-1 mm. lata, vel interdum folia ad vaginam ore obliquam marginibus hyalinam reticulatam redacta. Anthela simplex vel sub- composita, vel ad capitulum paucispiculosum redacta; bract eae 2 foliis simillimae sed angustiores, inferior erecta anthelam fere adaequans superior spiculas brevior longiorve ; radii 0-3, e prophyllo brevi apice bidentata orti, tenuissimi sed triquetri, minutissime seabriduli vel laeves, valde inaequales usque ad 3*5 cm. longi; radioli brevissimi vel nulli. Spiculae plerumque 2-6-nim digitatae, undique patentes, oblongae, inciso-serratae, obtusae, 3-4*5 mm. longae, 2*1 mm. latae, 8-16-florae, valde compressae, pallide virescentes saepe brunneo-tinctae. Rhacliilla persistens, leviter flexuosa, applanata, internodis subexcavata, vix alulata. Glumae sublaxe imbricatae, patentes, a latere visae oblique ovatae, acutae vel obtusiusculae, applanatae suborbiculares acuminatae, 3-nerves, valde carinatae, carina sursum alulata inciso-cristulataque in mucronem saepe paullo recurvatum excurrente, lateribus inter carinam nervumque lierbaceae, ceterum byalinae, omnino celluloso-reticulatae, 1*15-1*25 mm. longae. Stamina 2, antherae non visae. Stylus 0*25-0*3 mm. longus, stigmata 3 sublongiora. Nux pallide brunnescens, haud nitida, elliptico- obovata, triquetra, apice obtusissima minute apiculata, basi' db obtusa, angulis angustis haud costata, lateribus leviter concava fere plana, minute crebreque rugulosa, 0*45-0*5 mm. longa, 0*3 mm. lata, toro brevissimo.
Queensland. — Cook District: Near Chillagoe in damper places in open forest on grey sandy soil ca. 1,050 ft., April 2nd, 1938, Blake 13579.
The species was found associated with other small annual Cyperaceae and grasses in a community of Melaleuca sp. In its erect bract, oblong spikelets, slightly imbricate glumes with somewhat recurved apices, and pale colour it approaches C. flaccidus R. Br. closely, but it is smaller in all its parts, and the winged, distinctly cristulate upper part of the keel of the glume is distinctive.
In his monograph of Cyperus, Kiikenthal has placed C. flaccidus R. Br., C. aquatilis R. Br., C. superatus C. B. Clarke, O. breviculmis R. Br., and C. imbecillus R. Br. as varieties of C. t'rinervis R. Br. in the section Gradies C. B. Clarke. To my mind all are quite distinct from C. trinervis while C. imbecillus is a form of C. laevis R. Br., with unusu- ally elongated rays in the inflorescence. In recent correspondence Dr. Kiikenthal has accepted my rearrangement of the forms as given below. Strictly, the annual members placed by Kiikenthal as varieties of C. trinervis cannot be placed in the section at all unless the circumscription of the latter be widened, as in all cases the nut is less than half the glume, and there is a distinct approach to the Haspani through C. tenuispica Steud. There can be no doubt, however, that the species are all closely allied, the relationships being indicated in Fig. 1.
specialisation in nut structure > stabilisation of 3 -nerved glumes
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
37
4
development of rays in inflorescence
Phylogenetic table of the Graciles.
38
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
The species may be distinguished as follows : —
^Perennial ; glumes 1-9-nerved, not cellulose-reticulate ; nut dark brown or blackish, not tuberculate, equalling ^-} glume in length :
Glumes with one median nerve on each side or nearly nerveless; leaves f mm. or more wide, inflorescence often evolute, nut smooth :
Nut triquetrous, the sides ± concave, bracts usually 2, inflorescence often not evolute :
Glumes nearly nerveless on the sides, the apex nearly muticous; base of lowest bract setulose on the keel . . . . C. laevis
Glumes strongly 1-nerved on the sides, the apex mucronate ; bracts quite smooth at the base . . C. stradbrohensis
Nut obtusely trigonous convex on the sides, bracts 3-4, inflorescence always evolute
Glumes with 2-4 nerves on each side or with 1 nerve close to the keel; leaves rarely \ mm. wide, most usually very narrow; inflorescence always contracted, rays absent; spikelets congested, usually few: Glumes with 1-2 nerves on each side close to the keel, the remainder broad, white and nerveless:
Nut smooth or punctulate Nut striate and trabeculate Glumes striate throughout with 3-4 nerves on each side :
Nut obovate smooth or punctulate, external cells minute
Nut elliptical, coarsely reticulate, the hexa- gonal external cells large
C. trinervis
C. enervis C. mirus
C. gracilis
C . sculptus
* Annual : glumes 3-nerved, cellulose-reticulate ; nut white or pale brown, tuberculate, as long as J-J glume:
Keel of glumes winged and serrulate in upper
part . . . . . . . . . . C. cristulatus
Keel of glume neither winged or serrulate.
Nut 0-7-0-8 mm. long.
Glumes with a rather long recurved mucro, usu- ally pallid ; bract almost always 1, ± exceeding the inflores- cence . . . . . . C. flaccidus
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
39
Glumes acute, or with a very short erect point, mostly tinged with brown; bracts usually 2, shorter than the inflorescence
C. aquatilis C. breviculmis
Nut 0-5 mm. long . .
ENUMERATION OF SPECIES.
1. C. laevis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. imbecillus R. Br. l.c. 213. C. enervis R. Br. var. laxus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878). G. trinervis R. Br. var. laxus (Benth.) Kukenth. in Pflanzenreich Heft. 101, 293 (1936).
South-east Queensland (Port Curtis, Wide Bay, Moreton, Eastern Darling Downs districts) and North-eastern New South Wales.
In the prevailing form, the inflorescence is in the form of a com- pound head, a few rays being developed but very short. At times the rays may attain 2-3 cm. in length; this is C. imbecillus, C. enervis var. laxus, and C. trinervis var. laxus. In depauperate states there may be no trace of the rays. The two extremes may be found on the same plant.
2. C. stradbrokensis Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft. 85, 422 (1915).
South-east Queensland (Moreton District, on rather loose sand near the sea) .
As in the case of nearly all other species described by Domin, it has been necessary to examine carefully his type-localities for the elucida- tion of the species described by him. Requests for the loan of his types have been ignored by him.
3. 0. trinervis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810), and incl. var. compactus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 633 (1915). C. Lessonianus Kunth, Enum. pi. ii'. 29 (1837). C. graeilis var. ? rigidella Benth. FI. Austr. viii. 266 (1878) in part.
Queensland and New South Wales in coastal districts. More robust than the other species.
4. C. enervis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. debilis R. Br. l.c. 213. C. enervis R. Br. var. fallax Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 421 (1915). C. gracilis R. Br. var. enervis (R. Br.) Kukenth. in Pflanzen- reich, Heft 101, 297 (1936).
Eastern Queensland (coastal and sub-coastal) and North-eastern New South Wales; also, according to Kiikenthal, in New Caledonia.
I have seen no authentic specimen of C. debilis R. Br. and no mature specimen agreeing with Kiikenthal ’s description of the species. Through the courtesy of Sir Arthur Hill, I have been informed that Brown’s specimen at Kew is undeveloped C. enervis and it is chiefly on this authority that I have united the two species. Kukenthal’s description agrees fairly with immature plants of C. enervis growing in less shady places than this species usually inhabits. Bentham’s description (FI. Austr. vii. 266) refers chiefly at least to the next species.
40
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
5. C. minis C. B. Clarice in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 4 (1908). C. debilis sec. Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878) not of R. Br., at least in part.
Queensland (Cook District at altitudes of 2,200-2,500 feet., Wide Bay and Moreton Districts) and North-eastern New South Wales as far south as Sydney.
Resembles the former in the broad white margins to the glumes which are nerved only close to the keel, hut the spikelets are narrower and the nut is unique with its transversely elongated very prominent external cells.
6. C. gracilis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810).
Queensland (except the far interior and the north-west) and New South Wales as far south as Sydney, chiefly in coastal districts.
7. C. sculptus S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. li. 34 (1940).
See above.
8. C. cristulatus S. T. Blake in Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensl. li. 35 (1940).
See above.
10. G. flaccidus B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. trinervis R. Br. var. flaccidus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936).
Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, in wet places. Not known from the interior. Also in Japan and Korea accord- to Kukenthal, who refers to this species C. macellus Kunth. Enum. Pl.
ii. 30 (1837) and C. hakonensis Franch. & Sav. Enum. PI. Japon. ii. 105 and 538 (1879).
This species appears to be rare in Australia. In the field it can usually be distinguished by its characteristic pallid green colour. It and the two following species were included by Bentham in C. trinervis.
11. C. aquatilis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. inundatus R. Br. l.c. 213. C. superatus C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 4 (1908). C. trinervis R. Br. var. aquatilis (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936), and var. superatus (C. B. Clarke) Kiikenth. l.c. 294.
Western Australia (Kimberley Division), North Australia, Queens- land, New South Wales, and Victoria, in wet places and chiefly in coastal districts.
C. superatus C. B. Clarke, to judge from a specimen of the type collection in Herb. Melbourne (Darwin, Schultz 313) is merely a form of C. aquatilis with an unusually long bract but the inflorescence not yet fully developed. C. inundatus is a small state. What appear to be specimens of the type collection of C. aquatilis (New Holland, Banks and Solander) are in Herb. Melbourne and Herb. Sydney.
12. C. breviculmis B. Br. Prodr. 213 (1810). C. trinervis R. Br. var. breviculmis (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 294 (1936).
North Queensland.
Until recently only known from the type-collection (Carpentaria B. Brown 5912) which is represented in Herb. Brisbane (ex Herb. Kew) and Herb. Melbourne. In 1938 I was fortunate enough to secure two excellent series from the Cook District (near Mareeba in dried-out
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
41
depressions in Eucalyptus forest ca. 1,700 feet, March 28th, 1938, Blake 13481 ; and about 40 miles north-west of Mungana in Melaleuca forest on fine whitish sand, April 8th, 1938, Blake 13719). Specimens of the former collection match those of the type exactly, but the latter consists of much smaller but older plants mostly not exceeding 5 cm. in height, but with rather elongated spikelets.
Cyperus teneriffae Poir. in Lam. Encycl. vii. 245 (1806). C. calci- colus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft 85, 632 and plate xvii. figs. 10-13 (1915). Domin ’s species was omitted from Kiikenthal’s monograph, and no specimens agreeing with Domin ’s description and figures were extant in any Australian herbarium. However, in March, 1938, I was fortunate enough to rediscover the plant at the type locality (Cook District: Lion’s Head Bluff, Chillagoe, among boulders and in crevices on rugged limestone ridges, ca. 1,150 feet, Blake 13519) and specimens were sent to Dr. Kukenthal for an opinion. He has determined them as C. teneriffae Poir. forma petraeus (Hochst.) Kiikenth. and they agree closely with his figure and description of the species, which ranges through Eastern Africa to India, and has very likely been introduced to Queensland. The forma petraeus is most probably an epharmone. At Chillagoe the plants were observed on one only of the numerous karst hills (“bluffs”), and that is practically within the town itself.
Cyperus nervulosus {Kiikenth. ) S. T. Blake stat. nov. C. pumilus L. var. nervulosus Kiikenth. in Pflanzenreich, Heft 101, 378 (1936). C. breviculmis sec. P. Mu, ell. Pragm. viii. 267 (1874) not of R. Br. C. pumilus sec. Benth. PI. Austr. vii. 258 (1878) not of L. Pycreus pumilus var. punctatus Domin in Biblioth. Bot. xx. Heft. 85, 417 (1915), not C. punctatus Roxb.
Northern Australia, North-east Queensland.
Distinguished from all forms of C. pumilus by the distinctly nerved sides of the spathulate-oblong glumes. The type-collection {Dietrich 618, from Rockhampton) is represented in the Herb. Mel. Typical C. pumilus is known in Australia from two localities only ( Queensland : Kennedy North District : Townsville, in open damp sandy places, ca. 5 feet, June 7th, 1934, Blake 5978, and Cook District: Cairns, on wet sandy forest land, ca. sea-level, June 15th, 1935, Blake 9392).
C. flavescens L. Spec. PI. ed. 1, 46 (1753). The typical form of this has been found in Queensland in the following localities, possibly as introductions: —
Moreton District : Buderim, in swamp, Feb. 24th, 1934, Blake 5186 ; Darling Downs District: Ballandean, on wet sandy places near creek, Jan. 31st., 1938, Blake 13237; Wyberba, in swamps, 2,500-3,000 feet, Jan. 21st, 1933, Blake 4597 ; between Bald Mountain and Wyberba, on damp ground on creek bank, Jan. 16th, 1933, Blake 4513.
Widely distributed throughout the warmer parts of the world. The specimens referred by Bentham to this species are pale-coloured speci- mens of C. sanguinolentus Yahl.
C. sanguinolentus Vahl, Enum. PI. ii. 351 (1806). C.Eragrostis Yahl l.c. 322, Benth., &c., not of Lam. C. areolatus R. Br. Prodr. 216 (1810). C. flavescens sec. Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 259 (1878), not of L. C. sanguinolentus Yahl var. areolatus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. in Pflanzen- reich, Heft 101, 338 (1936). Pycreus sanguinolentus (Yahl) Nees in Linnaea ix. 283 (1835).
42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Widely spread over Eastern Africa, Southern Asia, East Indies, and the Australian mainland.
Kukenthal has shown (l.c. 115) that the name C. eragrostis properly belongs to the plant widely known as C. vegetus Willd., a species intro- duced to New Zealand, Victoria, and New South Wales. He distinguishes the Australian specimens of C. sangumolentus as var. areolatus (R. Br.) Kiikenth. solely by the blackish margins to the glumes, a character which is very inconstant even in the same inflorescence. His forma setacea is merely a small slender state.
0. Luerssenii Boeck. in Flora, lviii. 86 (1875), Kiikenth. l.c. 426. I have seen specimens from the type collection of this species and of C. subulatus R. Br., and cannot distinguish between them. Neither the degree of leaf-development nor the slight difference in the nervature of the glumes emphasised by Kukenthal are constant, and all combina- tions may occur on the same plant. Hence I would regard C. Luerssenii Boeck. as a synonym of C. subulatus R. Br. In this species the spikelets may fall entire at maturity, or the glumes may fall singly from a persistent rhachilla, thus combining the features of Eu-cyperus and Mariscuis. In this case also, both states may be observed on one and the same plant either in the herbarium or in the field.
I have seen no authentic specimen of C. subulatus var. confertus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 281 (1878), but the description matches parts of many plants of typical C. subulatus where the inflorescence is reduced to a ± compound head.
C. cyperinus (Betz.) Suringar var. scabriculmis Kiikenth. l.c. 520. An examination of the type-collection in Herb. Sydney (Queens- land: Cairns, August, 1901, Bet eke) has shown this to be a depauperate plant of C. scaber (R. Br.) Boeck. Normally this species has tall culms with a compound or somewhat decompound inflorescence, and is very different in aspect from C. cyperinus (Retz.) Suringar. Small speci- mens, such as are more usual in South Queensland, where C. cyperinus does not occur, have frequently a simple anthela. The two species may be constantly distinguished as follows: —
|
C. cyperinus. |
C. scaber. |
|
Culms smooth |
Culms scabrous to very scabrous, at least in upper part |
|
Leaves and bracts rather flaccid, not septate-nodulose, mostly flat |
Leaves and bracts rather rigid, indistinctly septate-nodulose, margins ± distinctly re vo lute |
|
Nut oblong, 2-1 mm. long, 0*65 mm. wide |
Nut linear-oblong, 2- 3-2* 5 mm. long, 0-65 mm. wide |
|
Rhachilla not very rigid |
Rhachilla rather rigid |
|
Wings membranous |
Wings firm, thinly coriaceous |
Sect. Pinnatae Kiikenth.
This section was erected by Kukenthal to include a most difficult series of endemic Australian forms. Though placed by the author in the subgenus Mariscus the first three species enumerated (C. angustatus
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
43
R. Br., C. dactylotes Benth., and C. Gilesii Benth.) are typical Eu-cyperus in structure, while most of the other species combine the characters of both subgenera as described above for C. suibulatus. Kiikenthal’s arrangement of the forms and his key to them is very unsatisfactory, and what follows can be regarded merely as some contribution towards a better understanding of this most difficult group.
C. Clelandii J. M. Black in Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Austr. xlviii. 253 (1924). The type of this (South Australia: Cordillo Downs, Feb. 25th, 1924, Cleland ), kindly lent by Mr. Black, shows this species to be conspecific with C. dactylotes Benth., a widely spread plant in the drier parts of the Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia.
Cyperus Betchei ( Kukenthal ) 8. T. Blake stat. nov. C. angustatus R. Br. var. Betchei Kiikenth. l.c. 452.
Species distincta, a C. angustato R. Br. habitu robustiore, foliis latioribus carina marginibusque scaberrimis interdum septato-nodulosis, spiculis distincte spicatis semper caducis, nitidioribus clarioribusque, rhachilla prominule, alata, nuce minus abrupte acuminata valde rostrata distinguenda. Nux rostrata notabilis est.
In the drier parts of Central and Southern Queensland and Northern New South Wales, the type is from Narrabri, collected by Betche in Jan., 1883 (N.S.W., Mel.).
C. rigidellus {Benth.) J. M. Black, FI. S. Austr. 676 (1929). C. gracilis R. Br. var. ? rigidellus Benth. FI. Austr. vii. 266 (1878) chiefly. Mariscus rigidellus (Benth.) C. B. Clarke in Kew Bull. Add. Ser. viii. 18 (1908). C. subpinnatus Kiikenth. var. sub rigidellus Kiikenth. in Fedde, Repert. xxix. 199 (1931).
While I have not seen Bentham’s type, I have seen several authentic specimens of Kiikenthal’s variety, as well as a large number of others from the interior of Queensland (Warrego District), New South Wales, South Australia, and North-west Victoria. They agree fairly with the descriptions of C. rigidellus and differ sharply from C. subpinnatus in the less rigid habit, the softer texture of the glumes and the wingless rhachilla. There is a considerable variation in the degree of development of the inflorescence, some culms bearing elongated rays, and in the colour of the glumes.
C. ochroleucus Boeck. in Flora lviii. 85 (1875). An examination of the type of this from Herb. Berlin, kindly lent by Dr. J. Mattfeld, has shown it to be a robust specimen in young flower of C. fulvus R. Br. var. densespiculatus (Domin) Kiikenth. with the uppermost leaf-sheath longer than usual. The taxonomic value of this variety is questionable, as in most tufts seen with reflexed secondary rays in the inflorescence, some inflorescences occur without such rays. In other words, C. fulvus (typical) and var. densespiculosus may occur on the same plant. The species is an exceedingly variable one.
Cypenis perangustus {Kiikenth.) S. T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect Pinnatos Kiikenth. ponenda et C. fulvo R. Br. affinis, a quo anthela majore decomposita laxiore, radiolis semper evolutis, spiculis multifloris angustissimis, rhachilla late alata, nuce elliptica apice haud abrupte acuminata, latere adaxiali distincte curvata differt. — C. fulvus R. Br. var. perangustus Kiikenth. in litt.
44
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Dense caespitosa, viridis, ± viscida. Cnlmi plures, stricti, erecti, graciles, triquetri, striati, glabri laevesque vel sub apice scabridi, 20-40 cm. alti, tantum basi incrassata vaginis latis brunneis multinervis dz resinosis foliati. Folia pauca, inter se distantia, vagina summa usque ad 9 cm. longa; laminae lineares, sursum gradatim attenuatae, planae vel inferne complicatae, septato-nodulosae, carinatae et crebre pluri- nerves, carina marginibusque scabrae, 3-5-5-5 mm. latae, culmi apicem superantes. Anthela composita, laxa vel sublaxa, 7-10-radiata; bracteae plures, foliis similes superiores gradatim angustiores brevioresque, 3-4 inferiores anthelam superantes vel longe superantes. Radii rigidi, undique patentes, inaequales, usque ad 10 cm. longi, compressi, glabri laevesque, e prophyllo ore paullum oblique secto orti ; radioli ± deflexi, usque ad 3 cm. longi ; bracteolae ± setaceae, radiolis plerumque brevi- oribus. Spicae breves, e spiculis 4-10 approximate divaricatis constructae. Spiculae aureae vel aureo-brunneae anguste lineares, turgi- dulae, 7-18 mm. longae, 1-2-1-7 mm. latae, 7-22-florae. Rhachilla tenuis, flexuosa, rigida, late alata, decidua vel persistens. Glumae sublaxe dispositae, imbricatae, primoi appressae tandem aliquantulum patentes, deciduae vel cum rhachilla decidua ± persistentes, ovatae, obtusae vel leviter retusae, tenuiter membranaceae, carinatae, carina viridi recta (a latere visa) brevissime excurrente, latere utroque 3-4 nervis prominule notatae, 1-8-2-1 mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae oblongae obtusae, 0-6-0-7 mm. longae. Stylm tenuis 0-8-0-9 mm. longus stigmatibus 3 paullo brevior. Nux brunnea ± vernicosa, anguste elliptica, apice rotundata breviter acuminata, obtuse trigona, latere adaxiali curvata concavaque ceteris convexa, cellulis extimis minutis paullo prominulis, 1-5-1-6 mm. longa, 0-5-0-6 mm. lata, gluma paullo vel usque ad J brevior.
Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, Jan. 30th, 1862, Dallacky (Bri., Mel.) ; Townsville, on the mid-slopes of Castle Hill, chiefly in gullies, March 30th, 1935, Blake 8359 ; Magnetic Island, on rocky granite cliff face in light rain forest and in shady places near a creek, March 24th, 1935, Blake 8237 ; and on shady creek bank, Blake 8249. Port Curtis District : Gracemere, Feb. 10th, 1876, O’Shanesy 1642 (Mel.) ; Marmor, between Rockhampton and Gladstone, in monsoon forest, March 8th, 1937, Blake 12778. Wide Bay District: Near Bunda- berg, in mixed open forest on sandy soil, April 26th, 1936, Blake 11304 (Type in Bri.) .
O’Shanesy’s and Dallachy’s specimens are immature and were referred by previous authors to C. angwstatus R. Br. C. perangustus differs from C. angustatus in its viscidity, in the much broader promin- ently septate-nodulose leaves, rather loosely spicate spikelets, the broadly winged rhachilla, and in the unsymmetrical nut the edges of which are not parallel.
In a letter Dr. Kiikenthal suggested that the form was a variety of C. fulvus, giving merely the diagnosis as follows : — Anthela decomposita ampla. laxa; spiculae lineares vix 1 mm. latae.
Cyperus clarus S: T. Blake sp. nov. inter sect. Pinnatos Kiikenth. ponenda, affinis C. fulvo R. Br. et praecipue var. confuso (C. B. Clarke) Kiikenth., sed a formis omnibus speciei spiculis latioribus, glumis majoribus in mucronem validum excurvum excurrentibus, nucis majoris fuscae angulis subacutis lateribusque subplanis vel concavis differt.
Perennis, caespitosa, viridis, haud viscida. Culmi erecti, stricti, rigidi sed graciles, 15-50 cm. alti, apicem versus seabriduli, ceteri glabri
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
45
laevesque, basi incrassata vaginis latis brunneis multi-nervis obtecti. Folia pauca, basi culmi sita ; laminae lineares, longe acutatae, i coriaceae, rigidae, culmi apicem saepe attingentes vel sfaperantes, planae vel admodum revolutae vel (praecipne inf erne) complicatae, septato- nodulosae, tenniter plurinerves, carinatae, carina marginibusque irregnlariter spinnloso-scabrae, 2-5-6 mm. latae. Bracteae 3-5 foliis similes, 2-3 anthelam snperantes. Anthela simplex vel subcomposita, vel ad capitulnm compositum redacta, 0-6-radiata, subdensa ; radii subrobusti, stricti, ± patentes, trigoni ± compressi, glabri laevesqne, e propbyllo tubuloso ore ampliato oblique secto orti, usque ad 4 cm. longi; radioli nullr. Spiculae plures vel numerosae in capitulis hemisphericis vel subglobosis 20-25 mm. diam. brevissime spicatae, quasi digitatim confertae, leviter compressae, oblongae vel lineari-oblongae, 8-15 mm. longae, 2-7-3 mm. latae, 6-20-florae. Rhachilla persistens, haud caduca, leviter flexuosa vel fere recta, rigida, valde applanata, fere exalata. Glumae facile deciduae, sublaxae, primo imbricatae demum ± patentes et ob margines ± involventes inter se d= discretae, aureae vel castaneae vel clare brunneae, nitidulae, ovatae, obtusae, rigide membranaceae, margines versus admodum tenuiores subscariosae, carinatae et praeter carinam ± nervosam superne validam sub glumae apice in mucronem validum aeutum excurvum 0-4-0-7 mm. longum excurrentem, 6-8-nerves, et mucrone incluso 3-2-3-8 (plerumque 3-3-3-5) mm. longae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, minute apiculatae, 0-6-0-8 mm longae. Stylus tenuis, 0-8-1-2 mm. longus, stigmata 3 tenuia paullo longiora. Nux fusca vel cinereo-velata, haud nitida, obovato-oblonga, acuminata, subaeque trigona angulis subacutis, latere adaxiali ± concava ceteris plana, 2-2-1 mm. longa, 0-85-0-95 mm. lata, cellulis extimis minutis vix obviis.
Queensland. — Leichhardt District: Minerva, north of Springsure, in grassland on dark grey clay loam, 800-1,000 feet, March 7th, 1935, Blake 7934. Port Curtis District: Gracemere, dry gravelly places, common, Nov. 1st, 1873, O’Shanesy 1406 (Mel.). Warrego District: Morven, in depressions in railway enclosure on dull brown silt clay ca. 1,400 feet, April 2nd, 1936, Blake 11008. Maranoa District: Mitchell, on bed of Maranoa River on sand, ca. 1,350 feet, May 4th, 1934, Blake 5738. Darling Downs District: Palardo, west of Miles, in railway enclo- sure on black clay, ca. 1,100 feet, May 10th, 1934, Blake 5886; Oakey, Donges 6 in 1930 ; Drayton, on hillsides on heavy soil, either in the open or in Eucalyptus forest; also common at edge of cultivation, Feb. 12th, 1934, Blake 5174 (Type in Bri.).
New South Wales. — Far Western Plains: Mootwingie, near Broken Hill, in rock pools, Oct. 9th, 1921, A. Morris 845 ( N.S.W.) ; Goyinga Mountains, near rocky waterholes, Nov. 6th, 1860, Victorian Expedn. (Mel.).
? South Australia. — Oodnadatta, June, 1914, Stair (Herb. Black) ; very young with no base, but apparently this species.
So far as observed in Queensland this species is chiefly found on heavy soils. Well-developed specimens are readily known by the dense globose spikes of relatively broad, rather turgid, brightly coloured spikelets with rather prominent recurved mucros to the glumes. In habit it recalls C. Gilesii Benth. rather than C. fulvus R. Br., but the nut and glumes are much broader, and the plant is a perennial with more prom- inently thickened culm-bases. From all forms of the variable C. fulvus it differs in the dense globose spikes, the broader spikelets of a usually
46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
quite different colour, the prominently cuspidate glumes, the rather sharp angles to the nut, the faces of which are not brown, and the adaxial is distinctly concave and incurved towards the base.
Cyperus oxycarpus S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis C. carinato R. Br.. in sect. Pinnatis Kukenth., a quo vaginis basi culmi induratis nitidis, bracteis plus numerosis, glumis longioribus acutioribusque, nuce lanceolata vel fere lanceolata, apice acuta, differt.
Perennis, dense caespitosa, glabra, haud viscida. Culmi stricti, erecti, rigidi, 35-50 cm. longi, 1J-3 mm. lati, obtuse trigoni, crebre striati, sub apice parce seabriduli ceterum laeves;, basi vaginis zh squamiformibus duris nitidis striatis purpureis vel purpureobrunneis subincrassati. Folia 4-5 culmi basi sita inflorescentiam ipsam longe superantia et eis innovationum saepe exceptis valde septato-nodulosa vaginae arctae haud carinatae ; laminae angustae, apicem setaceam versus longe attenuatae, plerumque complicatae raro d= planae, usque ad 4-5 mm. latae, plurinerves, basin versus exceptae carinatae, carina superne acuta marginibusque scabridae, ceterum laeves. Bracteae plures, 3-5 inferiores foliis similes anthelam longe superantes, superiores gradatim breviores angustioresque. Anthela composita vel simplex, sublaxa, plerumque 5-10-radiata ; radii ± robusti, rigidi, stricti, compressi, tenuiter striati, laeves, usque ad 9 cm. longi, suberecti vel admodum patentes, e prophyllo breviusculo apice obliquo orti; tract eolae sub- setacei, anthelulam plerumque superantes; radioli pauci plerumque breves, raro plus 2 cm. longi, saepe non evoluti. Spiculae in capitulis densis saepe compositis 10-15 mm. diam. digitatim dispositae, fulvae vel sanguineo-maeulatae, ovatae vel ovato-oblongae, compressae, 8-14-florae, 5-7-5 mm. longae, 4-4-5 mm. latae. Rhachilla persistens flexuosa, exalata, tenuis, nodis inter se 0-7 mm. distantibus incrassata. Glumae deciduae, oblique patentes, primo it imbricatae, tandem quoque ob margines involutas inter se discretae, ellipticae, acutae, vel leviter emarginatae et minute apiculatae, membranaceae, leviter carinatae (carina a latere visa leviter curvata), latere utroque nervis validis 3 notatae, 2-8-3 mm. longae, 1-5 mm. latae. Stamina 3, antherae lineares, 0-8-1-0 mm. longae, connectivi apice conica 0-1 mm. longa inclusa. Stylus tenuis 1 mm. longus, stigmata 3 filiformia subaequilonga. Nux straminea nitidula, lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, acuta, trigona^ subsymmetrica, a lateribus subcompressa, faciebus convexula vel adaxiali subconcava, cellulis extimis minutis inconspicuis, 2-3 mm. longa, 0-6 mm. lata.
Queensland. — Cook District: On Wrotham Park, ca. 50 miles north-west of Mungana, at edge of lagoon, April 8th, 1938, Blake 13712. Burke District: Wernadinga, between Normanton and Burketown, at edge of lagoon May 31st, 1935, Blake 9209 (Type in Bri.) ; O’Shanassy River, approx. 19° 10' S., 138° 45' E., on mud near water, April 19th, 1935, Blake 8637.
The nearest ally to this new species is certainly C. carinatus R. Br. which, however, has loose leaf-sheaths much softer in texture, and the lower ones without laminae are septate-nodulose like the others, and not hard and shining, the glumes are definitely obtuse, the anthers are smaller, and the nut is oblong and obtuse or abruptly apiculate at the apex. Kukenthal describes the leaves of C. carinatus as ‘ ‘ haud carinata, convoluta.” I find the leaves of both species sharply keeled in the upper
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
47
part, the keel becoming more obtuse and less distinct towards the lower part, and finally disappearing completely a short distance above the union with the sheath.
Rhynchospora heterochaeta S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis R. longiseti R. Br. a qua spiculis nucibusque minoribus setis hypogynis non plumosis differt.
Annua, viridis, Culmi solitarii vel caespitosi, obliqui vel erecti, stricti, usque ad 30 cm. longi, graciles, subacute triquetri, prominule striati, glabri laevesque, enodes. Folia plura (usque ad 9) basi culmi sita, inferiorum vaginae ± apertae; laminae lineares, gramineae, sub- molles, supra medium gradatim acutatae, planae vel raro it complicatae, anguste carinatae, plurinerves, carina marginibusque superne parce scabrae, eeterum glabrae laevesque, usque ad 3-5 mm. latae, usque ad 15 cm. longae, culmis plerumque breviores vel culmos minores adae- quantes vel paullum superantes. Inflorescentia terminalis capitata multispiculosa, plerumque 12-20 mm. lata. Bracteae foliaceae inaeqales, 4^8 capitulum adaequantes vel superantes usque ad 10 cm. longae, lineari-lanceolatae vel superiores lanceolatae, basi dilatata ecarinata marginibus dense ciliatae superne carina marginibusque scabrae. Spioulae aureo-brunneae, lanceolatae, acutae, dorso-ventraliter applanatae, 6-8-5 mm. longae, ca. 1-5 mm. latae, 1-nucigerae. Glumae 7, quinta fertilis elliptico-lanceolata, acute acuminata, tenuiter eoriacea margines versus hyalina, 1-nervis, 6-7-5 mm. longa; 4 inferiores gradatim breviores obtusiores, ima 1 mm. haud. vel vix attingens, penultima florem masculinum fovens et cum summa quam fertili multo angustior, brevior, it involuta. Stamina 2, antherae lineares, anguste apiculatae, ca. 1-5 mm. longae. Stylus longus filiformis indivisus. Nux brunnea vel fusco- brunnea, obovato-oblonga, dorsoventraliter applanata, lateribus sub- concava, marginibus obtussissima haud attenuata linea albida notata, punctulata, per J-f longitudinis superioris pilis spinulosis crassiusculis antrorsim appressis ornata, 3-0-3-7 mm. longa, 1-1-1-3 mm. lata. Stylo- kasis a nuce disereta, elongata, angusta, applanata, basi dilatata crassior, cellulosa,, marginibus antrorsim scabra, nucis f-f longa, basi haud constricta \ nuce lata. Setae hypogynae 6, una nuce brevior vel brevis- sima sublaevis, ceterae subaequales nucem cum stylobasi subaequantes (longiores brevioresve), antrorsim scabrae, basin versus sublaeves vel minute ciliatae, basi ipsa glaberrimae laevissimaeque.
Phillipine Islands. — Luzon: Province of Bulaean, Sept., 1913, Ramos in Kerb. Phil. Bur. Sci. 2099 (Bri.).
East Indian Archipelago. — Madoera Tusschen Sampang en Rapa, 50 m., March 11th, 1915, Backer 20052 (Bri. ex Bz.).
Northern Territory. — Darwin, Tate in 1882 (Mel.), Hoitze in 1886 (Mel.), April, 1927, Bleeser 149 (Mel., N.S.W.), without collector’s name (Bri., N.S.W.) ; Point Charles, western side of Darwin Harbour, Mcuir 214.
Queensland. — Burke District : Normanton, March, 1876, Gulliver. Cook District: Biboohra, near Mareeba, on sand in Eucalyptus forest, June 20th, 1935, Blake 9541 ; Cairns, on wet sandy forest land, ca. 0 feet, June 15th, 1935, Blake 9375. North Kennedy District: Rockingham Bay, Dallachy (Mel.) ; Cleveland Bay, Johnson in 1887 (Mel.). South Kennedy District: South of Mount Christian in grass-tree country, May, 1927, Francis. Wide Bay District : Near Bundaberg in Eucalyptus forest, chiefly on lower ground, April 27th, 1936, Blake 11322; near
48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Nikenbah, open sandy places near railway, June 5th, 1932, Blake 1323. Moreton District: Virginia, Brisbane, in Melaleuca forest, April 14th 1933, Blake 4749 (Type in Bri.) ; in Melaleuca forest in low flat country,, May 25th, 1932, Blake 1297 ; in railway enclosure, April 2nd, 1934, Blake 5303. Also probably Queensland, without definite locality, Banks and Solander in 1770 (Mel., N.S.W.).
This species has been confused in Australia with B. longisetis R. Br., but it has smaller spikelets and nuts, relatively shorter style-base, and non-plumose bristles. The extra-Australian specimens were distributed as B. Wightiana Nees, which has a very different nut and style-base.
There are several externally closely similar annual capitate species; of Bhynchospora in Australia, but an account of them must be deferred.
Carpha nivicola F. Muell. in Trans. Phil. Soc. Viet. i. 195 (1855). This species was founded on very depauperate specimens and has been referred by all later authors to C. alpina R. Br. An examination of the1 material of the genus in Herb. Melbourne has shown it to be a distinct species, and that normal specimens are readily distinguishable from C. alpina by the broader leaves (up to 3 mm. wide), the rather larger spikelets and nuts, and the hypogynous bristles plumose to the tips and not simply scabrous in the uppermost part as in C. alpina.
The following collections have been seen : —
New South Wales. — Southern Tablelands: Mount Kosciusko, up up to 5,000 feet, Jan., 1895, Maiden ; Snowy Mountains, Bduerlen 70.
Victoria. — Australian Alps, F. Mueller (Type in Mel.).
Tasmania. — Mount Wellington and Har dinger Range, F . Mueller
Schoenus foliatus {Hook. /.) 8. T. Blake comb. nov. Scirpus. foliatus Hook. f. in London Journ. Bot. iii. 414 (1844). Chaelospora axillaris R. Br. Prodr. 233 (1810). Schoenus axillaris (R. Br.) Poir. Encycl. Suppl. ii. 251 (1811) and of most authors, not of Lam. Helothrix pusilla Nees in Ann. Nat. Hist. Ser. i'., vi. 45 (1841). Helothrix axillaris (R. Br.) Palla in All. Bot. Zeitschr. viii. 68 (1902). Schoenus subaxillaris Kukenth. in Fedde, Repert. xliv. 89 (1938).
Queensland (Darling Downs District), New South Wales, Victoria,. South Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand.
Though I have not seen Hooker ’s type, his description could only refer to this species. The New Zealand specimens I have seen aro identical with the Australian ones. In recent correspondence, Dr„ Kiikenthal has accepted the above view.
Schoenus Kennyi (F. M. Bail.) S. T. Blake comb. nov. Arthrostylis- Kennyi F. M. Bail, in Queensl. Agr. Journ. xxviii. 278 (1912).
The species is certainly a Schoenus but the unusually white spikelets, of the type specimens arranged in dense heads, the obscurely distichous, nature of the lowermost glumes, the 6 stamens, and the poorly developed leaves appear to have misled Bailey into placing the species in Arthro- stylis. The stems sometimes bear two somewhat distinct heads of spikelets, and there is also frequently a node in the upper part. The leaves are reduced, but mostly obvious. The white colour of the glumes is less prominent in the more southern specimens and is sometimes,
NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN CYPERACEAE III.
49
replaced by brown. Its nearest ally is Sch. subaphyllus Kiikenth. [Sch. aphyllus Boeck. (1874) non Vahl. (1806)], a species widely spread in the drier parts of the continent, and the two may be distinguished as follows : —
Culms nodeless, leaf-sheaths always deeply split or quite open and often separating from the culms, leaves reduced to points or quite absent ; nut elliptic or oblong-elliptic, strongly and rather abruptly con- stricted at the base, rounded at the apex, not at all ribbed except at the very base, smooth, rather tawny and spotted with red, 2-5 mm. long . . . . . . Sch. subaphyllus
Culms usually 1-noded, the uppermost basal sheath closed almost to the top, or if more deeply split then tightly convolute, laminae always obvious, often rather well-developed; nut 1-8 mm. long, oval or somewhat obovate, narrowed at the base, the apex somewhat pyramidal, rather prominently 3-ribbed, the sides brown or brownish and wrinkled . . . . Sch. Kennyi
Specimens examined of Sch. Kennyi :
Queensland. — North Kennedy District: Herberton, Jan. 1912, Kenny (Type in Bri.), Dec., 1912, Kenny , Dec., 1911, Kenny ; Jan., 1918, Michael ; west of Pentland between Warrigal and Burra on slopes of Great Dividing Range on shallow sand overlying sandstone, 1,500-1,650 feet, October 10th, 1935, Blake 9946. Darling Downs District: 9 miles east of Condamine on ridge-top in Eucalyptus decoriicans — E. nubilis forest on shallow grey hard fine sandy soil, ca. 1,100 feet, Feb. 19th, 1938, Blake 13305.
New South Wales. — Central Western Slopes: Dubbo, Jan., 1898, Boorman (N.S.W.).
Uncinia flaccida, S. T. Blake sp. nov. affinis V . nervosae Boott et U. compactae R. Br., ab hae utriculi basi attenuata nec rotundata, foliis angustioribus, ab ilia utriculo latiore foliis flaecidis, ab utraque spica laxiore foliis multo longioribus differt. Ab TJ. rip aria R. Br. foliis paullo angustioribus, spica breviore, glumis 3-5-nervis utriculum subaequantibus et ab TJ. rupestri Raoul glumarum utriculorumque forma nervaturaque recedit.
Dense caespitosa, laxiuscula, viridis. Culmi 20-40 cm. longi, gracillimi, molles, acute triquetri, angulis sursum d= scabridis exceptis laeves, striati. Folia 5-7, culmi basin versus sita, culmum superantes vel longe superantes; vaginae tenues, inferiores pallide brunneae; laminae angustissimae, molles, planae, 3-5-nerves, leviter carinatae, 0-6-1-5 mm. latae, supra medium longe attenuatae et carina margini- busque parce scabridae, ceterum glabrae laevesque. Spica oblongo- lineares vel lineares, 18-30 mm. longa, laxiuscula, pars dimidia mascula. Glumae inter se plerumque 2-2*5 mm. distantes, ovatae, tenuiter mem- branaceae, 3- vel sub-5-nerves, dorso virides tenuiter carinatae, lateribus late enerves, i hyalinae vel fusco-tinctae, 4*5-5 mm. longae, masculae apice obtusa, femineae sursum angustatae sed apice ipsa anguste rotund- atae, utriculum adaequantes vel fere adaequantes, ima in bracteam filiformem spica breviorem vel multo longiorem producta. Utriculus erectus vel oblique patens, ovato-lanceolatus vel ellipticus, basin versus gradatim angustatus (haud rotundatus;) , sursum longiuseule acuminatus, acutiuscule triqueter, faciebus paullum concavus, glaber laevisque,
50
PROCEEDINGS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
tenuiter herbaceus, ore obliquo integro anguste hyalinus, prominule 2^1-nervis, nervis paucis inconspicuis evanescentibus saepe additis, 5-5-1 mm. longus, 1-6-1 -7 mm. latus. Stamina 3, filamenta baud dilatata. Stylus nuce brevior cum stigmatibus 3 papillosus, basi dilatata glaber. Nux brunnea, oblongo-elliptica, apice subtruncata umbonata, triquetra, lateribus concava, utriculo aequilata, -§ brevior. Bhachilla utriculo subduplo longior.
Victoria. — Mount Buffalo, in rock crevices, ca. 5,000 feet, Jan. 26th, 1935, Blake 7398 (Type in Bri.).
I am indebted to Mr. E. Nelmes, of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for verifying the distinctness of this species.
YOL. LI., No. 6.
51
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) *
By A. Jefferis Turner, M.D., F.R.E.S.
Our first real knowledge of the Australian Arctiidae we owe to a paper by Meyrick in Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1886, p. 690. He then included some genera that are now referred to the Nolidaee and Noctu- idae. After substracting these, his very useful paper contains 80 species referred to 30 genera. Hampson’s most valuable revision of the Arctiidae of the World Fauna followed in Cat. Lep. Phal. ii. (1900 and 1901) with a Supplement (i. 1914 and ii. 1920).
The family may be defined thus — Maxillary palpi obsolete. Labial palpi short. Antennae in male ciliated (often with longer bristles) or pectinate, very rarely simple. Forewings with lc absent, 5 from below middle of cell, an areole present in the more primitive genera, but usually absent through coalescence. Hindwings with lc absent, 5 usually from below middle of cell, 12 completely fused with upper margin of cell, usually to about middle. Frenulum present. Retinaculum in male almost always bar-shaped.
The Arctiidae are part of the superfamily Noctuoidea together with the Syntomidae, Nolidae, Noctuidae, Lymantriidae, Hypsidae, and Anthelidae. The relationship of these families may be represented by the following diagram: —
Syntomidae Nolidae
Arctiidae Noctuidae
The most important structural character in the family is the fusion of the costal and subcostal veins of the hindwings, usually as far as the middle of the cell, sometimes nearly to its end, or even including the base of vein 7, rarely for a short distance only. This character is shared by the Nolidae , which differ in the presence of tufts of scales on the forewings, longer palpi, and an expansion of the basal antennal joint by loose spreading hairs. In some genera of Noctuidae , including the subfamily Sarrothripinae , the costal vein of the hindwings anastomoses
* Except where otherwise stated, the types of all new species described in this paper are incorporated in the author’s collection.
52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
with the subcostal from near its base to middle of cell, but is not fused with it basally. The Nolidae I regard with Hampson as derived from the Sarrothripinae , their resemblance in neuration to the Arctiidae being due to convergence, and their relationship collateral. As Meyrick has pointed out, the Arctiidae are derived from the Hypsidae, some genera of which approach them closely.
In addition to the characters given in the definition, the following are noteworthy. In both wings vein 2 arises usually from near the middle of the cell, though in many genera it has moved distally. Veins 7 and 8 of the forewings are nearly always stalked. Vein 11 of fore- wing may either be free or may anastomose with 12. Frequently there is a reduction in the number of veins in either or both wings by coinci- dence, never by obsolescence ; though in Chionaema vein 5 of hindwings is weak. The family consists of two subfamilies — Lithosiinae and Arctiinae — the first with thorax and abdomen slender and usually smooth, and the hindwings comparatively broad; in the latter thorax and abdomen are stout and usually hairy, and the hindwings compara- tively short. These distinctions may not appear of much structural importance, but they indicate two very natural groups, which have followed different lines of development. From the Arctiinae were derived the Syntomidae in the Neotropical region, which is still their headquarters. The Lithosiinae show a strong tendency to asthenogenesis, both in reduction in size (frequently comparable to that of microlepi- doptera) and in number of veins, but these two developments are not always combined.
Without being one of the largest, the Arctiidae are a group of considerable size. In Australia the Lithosiinae are well represented by over 200 species — i.e., 10 per cent, of the world fauna; but the Arctiinae are comparatively few, 23 species — i.e., 1 per cent, of the world fauna. Of the total 77 genera 39 are strictly endemic and 11 are Papuan. As Queensland and New Guinea formed a continuous land area in recent geological times, we may claim 50 genera, or 65 per cent., a very high degree of endemicity. The family is represented in Tasmania by 29 species and 20 genera, of which 3 are endemic to the island, but nearly related to continental genera. In West Australia there are 20 species and 13 genera, of which 2 are endemic. Cremnophora is the only genus which can be regarded as of western origin. No Australian Arctiidae appear to be of Antarctic origin.
The Lithosiinae comprise a number of small genera, many of them monotypical, and a few of moderate size. Their classification depends mainly on neuration. The first 25 genera form a natural group, which may be arranged in series from the more primitive Utetheisa and Palae- osia to Lepista. Among the remainder several groups may be distinguished, but owing to parallelism and convergence they appear somewhat indefinite, and there is an appreciable number of apparently isolated genera. The construction of a key to the genera, which must necessarily be partly artificial, has been a difficult task. Our few Arctiinae on the contrary are easily dealt with. There are six genera, which have lost both tongue and areole, and are nearly allied, leaving the two more primitive and isolated genera Ehodogastria and Cre\ynnophora.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) .
53
Subfam. LITHOSIINAE.
|
Key to Genera. |
|||
|
1. Forewings with 5 absent |
2 |
||
|
Forewings with 5 present . . |
30 |
||
|
2. Hindwings with 5 absent : . |
3 |
||
|
Hindwings with 5 present |
26 |
||
|
3. Forewings without areole |
4 |
||
|
Forewings with areole |
29 |
||
|
4. Forewings with 4 absent |
5 |
||
|
Forewings with 4 present |
8 |
||
|
5. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12.. |
6 |
||
|
Forewings with 11 free |
7 |
||
|
6. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident |
Lepmta |
1. |
|
|
Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked |
Chrysosoota |
3 |
|
|
7. Forewings with 9 absent |
Meoewra |
2 |
|
|
Forewings with 9 present |
Teratopora g |
4 |
|
|
8. Hindwings with discocellulars and 6 absent |
Hestiarcba |
5 |
|
|
Hindwings with discocellulars and 6 present |
9 |
||
|
9. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked |
LambiMa |
6 |
|
|
Hindwings with 2 and 3 separate |
io |
||
|
10. Forewings with 6 long-stalked with 7 and 8, 6 |
|||
|
separating after 8 |
Oreopola |
7 |
|
|
Forewings with 6 separate or separating before 8 |
ii |
||
|
11. Forewings with 9 stalked with 7 and 8, or absent |
12 |
||
|
Forewings with 9 and 10 stalked |
Melastrota |
54 |
|
|
12. Forewings with 7 separating from 8 beyond 9 . . |
13 |
||
|
Forewings with 7 separating from 8 before 9, or |
|||
|
9 absent |
18 |
||
|
13. Forewings with basal § of cell constricted |
Graphosia |
8 |
|
|
Forewings with cell normal |
14 |
||
|
14. Palpi very short (| or less) |
15 |
||
|
Palpi moderately long (1) |
16 |
||
|
15. Forewings with 6 connate or stalked, hindwings |
|||
|
of male with costal expansion |
ScoUacma |
10 |
|
|
Forewings with 6 separate from beneath angle, |
|||
|
hindwings of male without costal expansion |
Threnosia |
11 |
|
|
16. Forewings with 6 connate or stalked |
17 |
||
|
Forewings with 6 separate from beneath angle . . |
Teratopora q |
4 |
|
|
17. Forewings with 2 from angle |
. .Phae\ophlebosia |
12 |
|
|
Forewings with 2 from about middle of cell |
Tigrioides |
13 |
|
|
18. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 |
19 |
||
|
Forewings with 11 free |
23 |
||
|
19. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident |
20 |
||
|
Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked |
21 |
||
|
20. Palpi obsolete, tongue weak |
Ateucheta |
14 |
|
|
Palpi developed, tongue normal |
Poliosia |
15 |
|
|
21. Forewings with 11 from near end of cell, tongue |
|||
|
weak |
. . Phenacomorpha 16 |
||
|
Forewings with 11 from f or f,’ tongue normal . . |
22 |
||
|
22. Forewings with 9 absent |
Thermeola |
9 |
|
|
Forewings with 9 present |
Eilema |
18 |
|
|
23. Forewings with 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked |
Ctenosia |
17 |
|
|
Forewings with 6 separate |
24 |
||
|
24. Forewings with 9 absent |
25 |
||
|
Forewings with 9 present |
Aedoea |
19 |
|
|
25. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked |
Heterotropa |
65 |
|
|
Forewings with 3 and 4 separate |
Atelophlepn |
29 |
|
|
26. Forewings with 7, 8, 9 stalked |
27 |
||
|
Forewings with 9 separate |
Heterallactis |
68 |
|
|
27. Forewings with 7 separating beyond 9 . . |
Stenoscaptia 26 |
||
|
Forewings with 7 separating before 9, or 9 absent |
28 |
||
|
28. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident |
Arrhythmica 27 |
||
|
Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked . . |
Goniosema |
28 |
54
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
29. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free
30. Forewings with 5 present, hindwings with 5 absent Both wings with 5 present
31. Forewings without areole'
Forewings with areole . .
32. Forewings with 9 and 10 stalked Forewings with 9 separate
33. Forewings without areole Forewings with areole
34. Forewings with 8 and 9 absent Forewings with 8 present
35. Forewings with 7, 8, 9 stalked or 9 absent Forewings with 7, 8, 9, not stalked
36. Forewings with 7 from 8 beyond 9 Forewings with 7 from 8 before 9, or 9 absent . .
37. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free
38. Hindwings with 5 weakly developed Hindwings with 5 normal
39. Forewings with 2 and 3 stalked from angle Forewings with 2 and 3 separate ; .
40. Forewings with 10 connate or stalked with 7, 8, 9 Forewings with 10 separate
41. Palpi hairy, forewings with 2 from f to, f Palpi not hairy, forewings with 2 from middle • .
42. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked Forewings with 3 and 4 not stalked
43. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to § of cell . . Hindwings with- 2 anastomosing to middle
44. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked Forewings with 4 and 5 not stalked
45. Hindwings with 4 absent, 3 and 5 stalked Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 separate
46. Hindwings with 2 from near angle Hindwings with 2 from middle
47. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to § or
further
Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to £
48. Hindwings with- 3 and 4 coincident Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate or stalked
49. Forewings with 3 from well before angle Forewings with 3 from angle
50. Hindwings with 2 from angle Hindwings with 2 from well before angle
51. Forewings with costa abruptly angled Forewings with costa not angled
52. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked
Hindwings with 3 and 4 approximated or connate
53. Tongue absent Tongue present
54. Forewings with 6 stalked with 7 and 8 . .
Forewings with 6 separate
55. Forewings with 11 from' near end of cell, free_ . . Forewings with 11 from middle, anastomosing
with 12 . .
56. Forewings with 11 anastomosing with 12 Forewings with 11 free
57. Hindwings with- 4 and 5 approximated or stalked Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate
58. Antennae bipectinate in both sexes Antennae not bipectinate
59. Forewings with 3 and 4 coincident Forewings with 3 and 4 not coincident
Manuloa 21 Calamidia 22
|
31 |
|
|
33 |
|
|
32 |
Hesychopa 23 |
|
Parelictis 58 |
|
|
Hemonia 69 |
|
|
34 |
|
|
69 |
Poliodule 31 |
|
35 |
|
|
36 |
|
|
65 |
|
|
37 |
|
|
53 |
Symmetrodes 32 |
|
38 |
Chionacma 33 |
|
39 |
|
|
Scaphidriotis $ 30 |
|
|
40 |
|
|
41 |
|
|
42 |
Eutane 34 |
|
Hectobrocha 35 |
|
|
43 |
|
|
44 |
Ameleta 37 Jleliosia 38 |
|
45 |
|
|
47 |
Aclytophane 39 |
|
46 |
|
|
Porphyrochrysa 64 |
|
|
Scaptesyle 40 |
|
|
47 |
Trissobrocha 36 |
|
49 |
|
|
51 |
|
|
Scaphidriotis o 30 |
|
|
50 |
Diduga 67 H alone 41 |
|
Psapharacis 42 |
|
|
52 |
Caprimima 43 Thallarcha 44 |
|
54 |
|
|
56 |
|
|
55 |
Ionthas 47 |
|
Xanthodule 45 |
57 59
58
60
Thumatha 46
PalTene 50
Asura 48 Kabrochrow^a 49 Stenaroha 51
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTHDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) .
55
60. Hindwings with 3 and 4 coincident Hindwings with 3 and 4 not coincident . .
61. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked Hindwings with 3 and 4 not stalked
62. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to I . .
Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to middle
63. Fore wings with 9 absent Forewings with 9 present
64. Forewings with 10 from end of cell Forewings with 10 from well before end of cell . .
65. Forewings with 8 stalked with 9 and 10 . .
Forewings with 8 not stalked with 9 and 10
65. Forewings with 3 or 4 veinlets from 12 towards
costa
Forewings without costal veinlets
66. Hindwings with 12 anastomosing with cell to near
its end
Hindwings with 12 anastomosing to £ or less
67. Antennae of male ciliated, both wings with 2
from §
Antennae of male simple, both wings with 2 from' middle
68. Antennae of male bipectinate, hindwings with 4
and 5 closely approximated or connate Antennae of male not pectinate, hindwings with 4 and 5 separate
69. Hindwings with 4 and 5 stalked Hindwings with 4 and 5 separate
1. Gen. LEPISTA.
Wlgrn. Wien. Ent. Mon. vii. p. 146. Hmps. ii. p. II
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint pointed. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with 2 from §, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from end of cell connate or approxi- mated to 11, 11 anastomosing or running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type L. pandula Bdv. from Africa. There is a second African species.
1. LepiMa pulverulent a.
Tigrioides pulverulenta Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1069. Lepista pulvera Hmps. ; Suppl. i. p. 462. Turn. ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Q. 1915,
p. 16.
The male is still unknown.
Queensland : Brisbane ; Stradbroke Island ; Tweed Heads. New South Wales: Port Macquarie.
2. Gen. METEURA.
Hmps. ii. p. 123.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short ; second joint hairy ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with tufts of cilia (1) and bristles (2). Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with cell long, 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 11 from near middle, free. Hindwings with discocellulars obsolete, 2 from near end of cell, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to about middle of cell.
Only one species is recorded.
BaeomorpJia 66
61
62 ;
63
Chamaita 61 Nudaria 62
64
Oeonistis 20 . . Pseudophanes 52 . . Panachranta 53 N esotropha 55
65
. . Sohistophleps 63
66
67
68
Philenora 56
Notata 57
Castulo 59
Termessa 60 Palaeosin 24 Utetheisa 25
56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
2. Meteura cervina.
Scoliacma cervina Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1068.
$ . 22-25 mm. Forewings fuscous-brown ; underside in male with a large area of blackish androconia in disc excepting basal and marginal areas. Hindwings pale grey, ochreous-tinged ; underside in male with a large area of grey androconia covering costal expansion and centre of disc, leaving terminal and basal areas free.
The female is unknown.
Queensland : Noosa Brisbane.
3. Gen. CLIRYSOSCOTA.
Hnps. ii. p. 109.
Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate, ascending; second joint rough-scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with short cilia and longer bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with 2 from about middle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, or 6 connate, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from § running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. Type, C. auranticeps Hmps. from New Guinea.
A small Papuan genus.
3. Chrysascota tanyphara n.sp. rawfapos, in long cloak.
$ 9 . 25-31 mm. Head and thorax pale brownish-fuscous. Palpi 11; brownish; at base ochreous-whitish. Antennae grey; ciliations in male i, bristles 2. Abdomen dark grey; tuft whitish. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, elongate, slightly dilated, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale brownish-fuscous with white markings ; a very slender median line from base to middle, where it dilates into a longitudinally oblong spot with strongly sinuate posterior margin; a slight oblique mark from costa before apex preceded and followed by fuscous, as is also the median spot; cilia fuscous, Hindwings broad (1^), termen rounded; grey; cilia grey.
North Queensland: Kuranda in September; Ravenshoe and Lake Barrine in December and May ; five specimens.
4. Gen. TERATOPORA.
Meyr. ; Trans. Ent, Soc. 1889, p. 459. Hmps.; ii. p. 271 and Suppl. i., p. 454.
Tongue present. Palpi moderately long (about 1) ascending. Antennae in male with cilia and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings in male with 2 from § or beyond, sometimes con- nected by a bar with 1, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, 10 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 11 anastomosing with 12 ; in the female 2 from towards angle, not connected with 1, 3 and 4 stalked, 10 from near end of cell. Hindwings with 2 from middle or beyond, 3 and 4 stalked or coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked or coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) . 57
Type T. haplodes Meyr. from New Guinea. A small Papuan genus. The neuration shows sexual and specific differences, and in the male an anomalous connection of 1 and 2 of the forewings in some species. Unfortunately I have not been able to examine the only Queensland species.
4. Teratopora irregularis.
Teratopora irregularis Hmps. ; ii., p. 271.
Unknown to me. Hampson gives Queensland and Victoria as localities, but I doubt the correctness of the latter.
5. Gen. HESTIARCLIA.
Meyr.; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1886, p. 736. Hmps.;. Cat. Lep. Phal. ii., p. 95.
Tongue rudimentary. Palpi minute. Antennae of male bipectinate. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 6 separating before 8, 9 absent, 10 from cell, 11 anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, discocellulars obsolete. Monotypical.
5. Hestiarcha pyrrhopa.
Meyr. ; ibid. p. 736.
Unknown to me.
South Australia : Port Lincoln.
5. Gen. LAMBULA.
Wlk. ; ibid., xxxv., p. 1890. Hmps. ; ibid., ii., p. 97.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, slightly or not reaching beyond frons, slender, porrect. Antennae of male shortly ciliated with longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender ; thorax smooth ; abdomen smooth or slightly hairy on dorsum. Legs smooth ; tibial spurs short, posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole; 2 from angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from well below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from upper angle, 11 from f running into 12. Hindwings with 2 and 3 stalked, 4 and 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to beyond middle. The neuration here given is that of the female, in the male it may be distorted in connection with androconial developments, and these will be given separately with each species.
Type L. melaleuca Wlk. from Sula Island, near Celebes. A small genus with several Papuan species and one from Borneo.
Because of the sexual differences usually present in the species of this genus, we give a separate key for each sex.
Males.
1. Forewings with a costal fold beneath . . . . 2
Forewings without a costal fold
2. Hindwings with a ridge of dark scales on costa
beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Hindwings without costal ridge
3. Forewings with veins 1 and 2 connected by a bar. .
Forewings with 1 and 2 not connected
transcripta
pleuroptycha
pristina
phyllod&s
58
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Females.
1. Fore wings with antemedian obliquely transverse
line . . . . . . . . . . . . transcripta
Forewings without antemedian line . . . . . . 2
2. Forewings with one or two postmedian lines . . 3
Forewings without postm’edian line . . . . . . pleuroptycha
3. Forewing lines outwardly curved . . . . . . phyllodes
Forewing lines nearly straight . . . . . . pristina
6. Lambula phyllodes.
5 $ . Palaexera phyllodes Meyr. ; l.c. p. 699.
$ . Lambula phyllodes Hmps. ; ii., p. 99.
$ . Lambula obliquilinea Hmps.; ii., p. 558. PI. 35. f. 1.
Forewings in male with a costal fold beneath. Hindwings with
6 and 7 coincident and with a costal expansion with a marginal ridge of dense dark hairs.
Queensland: Nambour; Brisbane; Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet). New South Wales: Allyn River; Sydney; Bulli.
7. Lambula pristina.
$ . Lithosia pristina Wlk. ; xxxv., p. 1885.
$ . Scoliacma iridescens Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W. 1889, p. 1068.
$ . Lambula thermopepla Hmps. ; Suppl. i., p. 445.
$ . Lambmila castanea Roths. ; Nov. Zool. xix., p. 214. Hmps. ; Suppl. 1., p. 444. PL 25, p. 13.
Forewings in male with a costal fold beneath. Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident and with a costal expansion suffused with dark androconia and with a ridge of dark marginal scales.
North Australia: Brock’s Creek; Melville Island. Queensland: Kuranda; Nambour; Brisbane; Macpherson Range (2,500-3,500 feet). Tweed Heads. Also from New Guinea.
8. Lambula pleuroptycha n.sp.
TrXevpoTTTvxos , with costal fold.
$ . 20-22 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-brown. Palpi less than 1; brown. Antennae fuscous; in male with short ciliations (-J) and longer bristles (1). Abdomen pale grey; tuft ochreous. Legs brownish. Forewings elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded, ochreous-brown ; a costal fold beneath ; fuscous androconia above forming a costal streak; paler androconia in central part of disc beneath; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with a strong costal expansion, termen rounded; pale ochreous with a brownish-ochreous central streak from base to beyond middle.
$ . 25 mm. Forewings uniform pale ochreous. Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; pale grey.
Queensland: Kuranda in April, May, and June. Tweed Heads in November; six specimens.
9. Lambula transcripta.
Tigriodes transcripta Luc. ; Proc. Lin. Soc. 1890, p. 1069.
Hindwings in male with 6 and 7 coincident.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (lEPIDOPTERA) .
59
Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton ; Nambour ; Brisbane ; Toowoomba ; Macpherson Range (3,000 feet). Tweed Heads.
7. Gen. OREOPOLA nov.
‘SpeonoXog, living in mountains.
Tongue present. Palpi minute, not reaching frons, slender, porrect. Thorax and abdomen slender; thorax smooth; abdomen slightly hairy on dorsum. Legs smooth ; spurs moderate ; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from shortly before angle, 3 and 4 long- stalked, 5 absent, 6 long-stalked with 7 and 8, 8 separating before 6, 9 absent, 11 running into 12. Hind wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 long- stalked, separating near termen, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Female unknown.
10. Oreopola, athola n.sp.
aOoXos, unstained.
$ . 26 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-grey.
Antennae grey; ciliations in male f. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; uniform ochreous-grey- whitish without markings; cilia concolorous. Hindwings broad, termen strongly rounded; colour as forewings.
Tasmania: Mount "Wellington (2,500 feet) in February; one •specimen.
8. Gen. GRAPHOSIA.
Hmps. ibid. ii. p. 97.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, not reaching beyond frons, slender, porrect. Antennae of male with fascicles of cilia and longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender, thorax smooth ; abdomen smooth (in stenopepla) . Legs smoots; tibia! spurs moderate; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole ; basal § of cell much constricted ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near upper angle, 11 anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 long-stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Type G. bilineata Hmps. from New Guinea.
This is a Papuan genus, Hampson records nine species from that region.
11. Gr aphosia stenopepla.
Hmps. ibid. Suppl. i. p. 444. PI. 25, f. 12. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q.
1915, p. 15.
The male has the forewings more brownish ; a fuscous streak containing a tuft of raised scales on basal part of costa ; a strong costal fold on underside from base to f ; covering a subcostal streak of raised ochreous androconial scales. Hindwings with costa strongly arched; the expanded portion covered with ochreous-fuscous scales. Abdomen with strong lateral tufts on fifth and seventh segments.
Queensland: Atherton Plateau (Ravenshoe and Millaa-Millaa, 3,000 feet) ; Montville (1,500 feet) near Nambour; Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range (3,500 feet). *
60
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
9. Gen. THEBMEOLA.
Hmps. ii. p. 96.
Tongue present. Palpi very short, not reaching frons; slender, porrect. Antennae of male shortly ciliated. Thorax and abdomen slender; thorax smooth; abdomen slightly hairy above. Legs smooth; tibial spurs short ; posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings without areole, 2 from shortly before angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 connate or short-stalked, 7 and 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from before upper angle, 11 from §> running into 12. Hindwings much broader than forewings (1J) ; cell short (-J), 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Female with very small aborted wings. Monotypical.
12. Thermeola tasmanica.
Therm^eola tasmanica Hmps. ii. p. 96.
Hestiarcha atala Turn. Proc. Boy. Soc. Vic. 1922, p. 29.
$ . 28-30 mm. Head and thorax pale brown. Antennae pale
brown ; dilations in male f . Abdomen ochreous-grey ; tuft ochreous- brown. Legs anteriorly fuscous; posteriorly pale ochreous; posterior tibiae and tarsi wholly pale ochreous. Forewings elongate-triangular costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; pale yellowish-brown with some pale fuscous irroration; an obscure dentate, interrupted, narrow, fuscous fascia from § costa to f dorsum; cilia concolorous. Hindwing much broader than forewings, strongly rounded : pale ochreous ; cilia pale ochreous.
Tasmania: Mount Wellington (1,500-2,500 feet).
10. Gen. SCOLIACMA.
Meyr. l.c. 1886, p. 695. Hmps. ii., p. 192.
Tongue well developed. Palpi very short (-J) ; second joint hairy; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings usually with costal fold in male ; 2 usually from well before but sometimes from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, rarely separate in male, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, connate or stalked with 7, 8, 9, which are stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before angle, 11 from about f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with costal expansion in male, 2 from f or near angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, rarely coincident in male, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle or beyond.
Type. $. bicolor. Distinguished from Threnosia by the strong costal expansion of hindwings in male. Occurs also in New Guinea.
Key to Species.
|
Both wings partly crimson-red |
bicolor |
|
|
Wings not red . . |
2 |
|
|
Forewungs narrow |
3 |
|
|
Forewings moderately broad |
5 |
|
|
Forewings with dorsum strongly sinuate |
lopliopyga |
|
|
Forewings with dorsum not sinuate |
4 |
|
|
Hindwings pale ochreous |
nana |
|
|
Hindwings whitish-grey |
pasteophora |
|
|
Forewings with oblique fuscous transverse line . . |
xuthopis |
|
|
Forewings without transverse line |
6 |
|
|
Forewings pale brownish ‘sprinkled with fuscous . . |
pactolias |
|
|
Forewings ochreous without fuscous sprinkling . . |
acosma |
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 61
13 Scoliacma bicolor.
Lithosia bicolora Bdv. Voy. Astrolabe Lep., p. 211, PL 3, f. 9. Hmps. ii., p. 103.
Scoliacma bicolor Meyr. l.c., p. 695.
Antennae in male with ciliations 4? bristles 14- Forewings in male with strong costal fold to J. Hindwings with strong costal expansion, a large raised oval patch of androconia in cell, 6 and 7 coincident. Examples from the Atherton Plateau are a local race with fuscous area of forewings extending nearly to base (herbertonensis) .
Queensland: Herberton; Eungella; Killarney; Stanthorpe. New South Wales: Glen Innes; Murrurundi; Scone; Newcastle; Sydney; Uralla; Bombala. Victoria: Melbourne; Gisborne; Beaconsfield;
Dunkeld; Gunbower; Moe. Tasmania: Launceston; Hobart; Tasman Peninsula.
14. Scoliacma lophopyga n.sp.
\o(f)07Tvyos , with crested rump.
$ . 24 mm. Head and thorax pale brownish-grey. Palpi fuscous- brown. Antennae grey ; in male bases of segments thickened and with tufts of cilia (14). Abdomen in male with basal segments whitish-grey ; terminal segments whitish-ochreous with four pairs of lateral tufts in addition to terminal tuft. Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique, dorsum strongly sinuate ; beneath with a strong costal fold edged with rough scales to beyond middle and an oval subcostal glandular thickening at 4 cm upper surface ; pale brownish-grey sprinkled with fuscous ; a fuscous costal streak from base to 4 ; and oblique fuscous line fron f costa to f dorsum, its outer edge dentate ; cilia pale grey. Hindwings with termen rounded? in male with a strong rounded costal expansion with dark androconia beneath; ochreous-grey- whitish ; a suffused grey postmedian spot; cilia ochreous-whitish.
Queensland : Ravenshoe in March ; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type.
15. Scoliacma pactolias.
Meyr. l.c., p. 696. Hmps. ii. p. 104.
$ . 28 mm. $ . 29-34 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous-
brown, paler in female. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male 1, bristles 24- Abdomen grey; tuft whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior pair sometimes fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa straight to f, thence gently arched, apex rounded termen obliquely rounded ; in male with a costal fold beneath to f edged with rough scales ; pale brownish sprinkled with fuscous ; in male a faint suffused fuscous line from f to mid- dorsum ; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; pale grey? in female ochreous-tinged ; cilia concolorous.
Queensland: Bunya Mountains in February. New South Wales: Acacia Plateau (2,500 feet) (near Killarney, Q.) in March; Mount Tomah in March. Victoria : Melbourne in April.
16. Scoliacma xuthorpis.
Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 461. Turn. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1915, p. 16.
Antennae in male with ciliations 1, bristles 14- Forewings with costal fold to middle, 2 from near end of cell, straight; hindwings with
R-s. — c
62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
costal expansion suffused with fuscous androconia, a vesicular thickening on costal margin of cell.
Forewings of female with 4 from f, curved at base; the longitu- dinal thickening of wing membrane running into this curve is not a vein; it is present only in the type, and has apparently no significance.
West Australia: Albany; Denmark; Margaret R. ; Yanchep.
17. Scoliacma pasteophara n.sp.
7raGT€0(j)opos , in peppered cloak.
$ $ . 25-26 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi very short ; whitish-grey. Antennae grey ; dilations in male 1, bristles 1^. Abdomen pale grey; tuft grey- whitish. Legs grey- whitish ; anterior pair pale grey. Forewings narrow, elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ; in male without costal fold; whitish sprinkled with grey; a narrow interrupted grey fascia from f costa to § dorsum, its outer edge sharply dentate ; cilia grey-whitish. Hindwings with termen rounded; costal expansion in male narrow with some androeonial irroration ; grey-whitish ; cilia grey-whitish.
West Australia: Busselton; Rottnest I.; two specimens.
18. Scoliacma nan a.
Lithosia nana Wlk. ii., p. 507 ( nec . Meyr. l.c., p. 698).
Scoliacma orlhotdma Meyr. l.c., p. 696. Pusiola nana Hmps. ii., p. 119.
Antennae in male with tufts of cilia (1) and bristles (1-J). Fore- wings in male pale brownish-ochreous ; sometimes with a suffused inter- rupted grey line from f costa to § dorsum ; in female pale grey with a whitish costal streak ; rarely indications of an oblique darker line ; in male' with costal fold to f ; a long patch of fuscous androconia on dorsal side of cell, and broader beyond cell, covered by a large costal expansion of hindwings. Hindwings in both sexes pale ochreous.
Queensland : Herberton ; Gayndah ; Brisbane ; Rosewood ; Macpher- son Range, 3,500 feet; Toowoomba; Warwick; Killarney. New South Wales: Sydney.
19. Scoliacma acosma.
Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10.
Forewings pale brownish-ochreous, rather paler in female; in male a costal fold to f . Hindwings in male rhombiform, angled on vein 2 ; pale ochreous ; costal expansion in male suffused with pale fuscous androconia. Antennae in male with ciliations i, bristles 1.
The type is a male, not female as stated in the description.
Queensland : Cairns ; Innisfail ; Ayr ; Duaringa.
11. Gen. THRENOSIA.
Hmps. ii., p. 96.
Tongue well developed. Palpi very short (i or less), porrect or drooping. Antennae of male shortly ciliated with longer bristles. Thorax and abdomen slender ; thorax smooth, abdomen slightly rough on dorsum. Legs smooth; tibial spurs short; posterior tibiae with middle
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 63
spurs. Forewings without areole ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9, stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near end of ceil, 11 from f, running into or anastomosing with 12. Hindwings in male without costal expansion; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked or coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident or separating near termen, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle or f. T. heminephes. Endemic.
20. Threnosia heminephes.
Meyr. ibid., 1886, p. 697.
New South Wales: Scone; Bathurst.
21. Threnosia adrasta n.sp.
aSpaaroz, sluggish.
$ . 34 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi f ; fuscous. Antennae grey ; ciliations in male \ ; bristles 2. Thorax reddish-brown. Abdomen pale ochreous-grey ; lateral hairs towards apex reddish-brown. Legs reddish-brown. Forewings elongate, posteriorly dilated, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique ; reddish- brown, cilia reddish-brown. Hindwings with termen rounded; whitish-ochreous; cilia whitish-ochreous.
Tasmania : King I. ; one specimen. Type in National Museum, Melbourne.
22. Threnosia myochroa n.sp.
I uvoxpoos, mouse-coloured.
$ . 29 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brownish-grey. Antennae
grey; ciliations in male -J, bristles 2. Abdomen grey, towards apex ochreous-tinged. Legs fuscous ; posterior pair pale grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; brownish-grey ; a faintly darker line from f costa to f dorsum ; cilia fuscous, apices paler. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale ochreous-grey; cilia concolorous.
Victoria : Castlemaine in April (W. E. Drake) ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type.
23. Threnosia agraphes n.sp.
aypa^ps , unmarked.
$ . 20 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi fuscous. Antennae
grey -brown ; ciliations in male 1, bristles 2. Abdomen fuscous. Legs ochreous-grey. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique; pale ochreous-grey; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded ; ochreous-grey ; cilia ochreous- whitish.
Smaller than T. myochroa, the wings paler, the antennal ciliations in male longer.
Victoria : Murtoa ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type.
24. Threnosia hypopolia n.sp.
v7to7to\los t grey.
9 . 20 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey. Abdomen
whitish grey. Legs pale grey. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen obliquely rounded ; grey ; cilia.
64
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
grey. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale grey; cilia pale grey.
Fore wings narrower than in T. agraphes, their apices rectangular, grey without ochreous tinge.
Victoria : Gisborne in April ; one specimen received from Mr. Geo. Lyell, who has the type.
12. Gen. PHAEOPHLEBOSIA.
limps. 11., p. 109.
Tongue present. Palpi about 1, smooth, slender, porrect. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings narrow ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from near end of cell, 11 from towards end, free. Hindwings broad; 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing with cell to f. Montypical.
25. Phaeophlebosia furcifera.
Setina furcifera Wlk. ii., p. 520.
Setina trifurcata Wlk. xxxi., p. 237.
Tigrioides furcifera Meyr. l.c., p. 698.
Phaeophlebosia furcifera Hmps. ii., p. 109.
New South Wales: Ebor. Victoria: Melbourne: Healesville ; Gis- borne. Tasmania: Hobart; Both well; Waratah.
13. Gen. TIGRIOIDES.
Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1887, p. 359. Hmps., Suppl. i., p. 466.
Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate (1), porrect; second joint rough-scaled; terminal joint obtusely pointed. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from about middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle connate with 7, 8, 9, which are stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from middle, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from f , 3 and 4 staked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type T. alterna. A small genus represented also in the Archipelago and India with one species in Africa.
26. Tigrioides alterna.
Setina alterna Wlk. ii., p. 520.
Tigrioides alterna Meyr. l.c., p. 697.
Lithosia histrionica H-Sch. Ausser. Schmet. f. 440.
Lithosia transversa Wlk. xxxi., p. 229.
Lexis alterna Hmps. ii., p. 117.
Queensland: Mount Tambourine; Macpherson Range, 2,000 feet; Toowoomba; Killarney. New South Wales: Lismore ; Murrurundi, Sydney ; Katoomba ; Bathurst. Victoria : Melbourne : Gisborne. South Australia: .
A REVISION OP THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) .
65
27. Tigridides nitens.
Lithosia nitens Wlk., xxxi., p. 231.
Lithosia remota Wlk. Char. Undesc. Lep., p. 9.
Tigrioides spilarcha Meyr. l.c., p. 699.
Lithosia unicolor Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1071.
Lexis nitens Hmps. ii., p. 118.
Queensland: Herberton; Kuranda; Townsville; Lindeman I.; Yeppoon; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Gympie ; Kingaroy; Noosa; Caloundra; Brisbane; Stradbroke I.; Tweed Heads; Maepherson Range, 3,500 feet; Helidon; Toowoomba; Bunya Mountains, 3,500 feet. New South Wales: Tabulam ; Ebor ; Sydney. Victoria : Melbourne ; Kewell ; Berwick.
14. Gen. ATEUCHETA nov.
dreuy^TOS', unarmed.
Tongue weak. Palpi extremely minute. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings with 2 from -§, 3 and 4 connate or stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, or 9 absent, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f running into 12. Hindwings with 2 from angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle.
Differs from Poliosia in the weak tongue and obsolete palpi.
28. Ateucheta zetesima.
Poliosia zate&ima (misprint) Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 463.’
Poliosia zetesima Turn. Proc. Roy Soc. Q., 1915, p. 16.
Antennae in male with cilia \.
North Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton Plateau.
15. Gen. POLIOSIA.
Hmps. ii., p. 106.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings with 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7, separating before 9, 10 free, 11 anastomosing with 12. TIindwings with 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 coincident, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing with cell to middle. Type, P. muricolor Wlk., from Borneo and India. There are several Indian and twTo African species.
29. Poliosia fragilis.
Brunia fragilis Luc. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1889, p. 1070. Poliosia fragilis Hmps. ii., p. 109, PI. 21, f. 1.
I do not know this species.
Queensland: Brisbane.
16. Gen. PHENACOMORPHA nov. c frevoLKOfjLopcfos , misleading.
Tongue weakly developed. Palpi very short, hairy. Antennae in male bipectinate to apex. Abdomen slightly hairy on dorsum. Posterior
66
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
tibiae with middle spurs; spurs short. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8 stalked, 9 absent, 10 from upper angle, 11 from near end of cell, anastomosing with 12. Hind- wings broader than forewings ; cell \ ; 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 long- stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell.
In spite of similarities in structure I do not consider that this genus is nearly related to Thermeola.
30. Phenacomorpha rhabdophora.
Thallarcha rhabdophora Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 19.
Thermeola rhabdophora Hmps. ii. p. 558.
Queensland : Toowoomba in August ; Stanthorpe in October and December; Talwood in April: New South Wales: .
17. Gen. CTENOSIA.
Hmps. ii., p. 130.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 8 separating after 6, 9 absent, 7 separating before 10, 11 free. Hindwings with 2 from end of cell, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type C. trifascia B-Bak. from New Guinea. There is also one species from Batchian and one from Africa.
31. Ctenosia infuscata.
Ctenosia infuscata Low. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1901, p. 640. Hmps., Suppl. i., p. 482.
I do not know this species and have some doubt as to its generic position.
New South Wales: Broken Hill.
18. Gen. EILEMA.
Eilema Hb. Verz., p. 165. Ilema Hmps., p. 130.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect ; second joint rough- scaled ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings without areole; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle or below, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 from before 9, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle of cell. Type, E. caniola Hb. from Europe. A large genus widely distributed in the eastern hemisphere.
32. Eilema chiloides.
$ . Teulisna chiloides Wlk. Lin. Soc. Zool., vi., p. 19. Hmps. ii., p. 135. $ . Coreura torta Wlk. l.c., p. 111.
Ityca humeralis Wlk. xxxv., p. 1890.
Diastrophia dasypyga Feld. Reis. Nov. PI. 106, f. 13.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) .
67
I do not know this species. It is widely spread in the Malay Archipelago and Hampson records it from Queensland.
33. Eilema bipunctata.
Lithosia bipunctata Wlk. xxxv., p. 1884. Hmps. ii., p. 136.
Corcura mysoiica Swin. Cat. Oxf. Mus., i., p. 119, PI. 3, f. 18.
Antennae of male with ciliations J, bristles 1. Forewings elongeta- triangular,, costa sinuate, termen straight, slightly oblique ; in male with dense ridge of scales on costa above from base to ; ochreous-whitish, suffused with pale ochreous-'brown in dorsal area to f and on termen; in male an oblique subquadrate blackish mark on costa before middle ; cilia greyish-ochreous, in female pale grey. Hindwings with termen slightly rounded; pale ochreous; cilia pale ochreous.
North Queensland: Kuranda in September, February, and April; Lake Barrine in June.
34. Eilema harpophora.
£ . Brunia harpophora Meyr. l.c., p. 701.
Ilema harpophora Hmps. ii., p. 167, PI. 22, f. 27.
$ . Brunia repleta Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 1070.
Ilema repleta Hmps, ii., p. 143, PI. 21, f. 28.
$ . Tigrioides xanthopleura Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10.
Ilema costistrigata B-Bak. Nov. Zool. xi., p. 419, PI. 5, f. 30.
Queensland: Cooktown; Cairns; Brisbane; Toowoomba. New South Wales: Lismore ; Port Macquarie ; Mount Wilson. Also from New Guinea.
19. Gen. AEDOEA.
Turn. Trans.' Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10.
Tongue present. Palpi very small, Antennae in male with cilia- tions and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hind- wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, A. deer eta Butl.
Only two species known.
35. Aedoea decreta.
Lithosia decreta Butl. Trans. Ent Soc., 1877, p. 351.
Aedoea monochroa Turn. Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 1899, p. 10.
Ilema decreta Hmps. ii., p. 176, PI. 23, f. 7.
Queensland: Brisbane. Also from Borneo.
36. Aedoea distigmata n.sp. hiartygaros , with two dots.
$ . 18 mm. Head whitish. Palpi 1J, whitish. Antennae ochreous- whitish; in male shortly laminate, cilia bristles \. Thorax ochreous- whitish. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs ochreous-whitish. Forewings
68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
suboval, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen gently rounded,, oblique ; ochreous-whitish ; fuscous discal dots at -J and f ; cilia ochreous- whitish. Hindwings with termen gently rounded ; ochreous-whitish • cilia ochreous-whitish.
North Queensland : Tully in July ; one specimen.
20. Gen. OEONISTIS.
Hb. Yerz., p. 165. Hmps. ii., p. 185.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending ; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male bipectinate, apical third simple. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from f, 3 from before angle, 4 and 5 connate, 6 from near upper angle, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 separating before 9, 10 from well before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 closely approximated to or connate with 4 and 5, which are stalked from angle, 6 and 7 connate or short-stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, 0. entella. There are also two species from New Guinea and one from Lifu.
37. Oeonistis entella.
Tinea entella Cram. Pap Exot, iii., PL 208d.
No'ctua convoluta Fab. Spec. Ins. ii., p. 215.
Noctna delta Fab. Mant. Ins. ii., p. 140.
Tigrioides splendens Luc. Proe. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1890, p. 1068.
Specimens from Australia are sometimes referred to the sub- species delta, which shows slight differences from the typical form, which occurs in China, Ceylon, and India.
North Australia: Amsterdam I. Queensland: Cairns; Innisfail; Atherton Plateau; Bowen; Mackay. Also from the Archipelago.
21. Gen. MANULCA.
Wlgrn. Wien. Ent, Mon. vii., p. 145.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porreet; second joint rough- scaled ; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae of male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of short spurs. Forewings with a wTell-developed areole, rhomboidal in shape with an acute apex; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 connate with 8, 9, which are stalked from apex of areole, 10 from middle of areole, 11 from f, anas- tomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to beyond middle. Type, M. gracilipennis Wlgrn. from Africa.
Distinguished from Eilema by the well-developed areole and from Hesychopa by the absence of 5 in forewings. A small genus but like Eilema widely distributed.
38. Manuica dorsalis.
Lithosia dorsalis Wlk. xxxv., p. 1883.
llema dorsalis Hmps. ii., p. 159, PL 22, f. 10.
$ . 30-38 mm. Head ochreous-yellow ; face dark fuscous. Palpi
1; ochreous-yellow; upper surface fuscous towards apex. Antennae
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE ( LEPIDOPTERA ) . 69
fuscous; ciliations in male bristles 1. Thorax fuscous; anterior margin and sometimes a posterior spot ochreous-yellow. Abdomen ochreous. Legs fuscous, anterior coxae ochreous. Forewings elongate, costa straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale grey; a large fuscous terminal blotch, its anterior margin straight, not reach- ing costa; costal edge sometimes dark fuscous; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; pale ochreous; cilia pale ochreous.
$ . 30-42 mm. Forewings glossy leaden-fuscous ; a broad pale
ochreous costal streak continued round apex to torbus.
North Australia: Darwin; Brock’s Creek. Queensland: Thursday Island ; Cairns, Atherton Plateau ; Bundaberg ; Gympie ; Brisbane. Also from New Guinea and Sula Island.
39. Manulca replana.
Phalaena replana Lew. Prodr Ent., p. 16, PL 15.
Brunia replana Meyr. l.c., p. 701.
Ilema replana Hmps. ii., p. 162.
Lithosia dispar Leach. Zool. Misc. i., p. 109, Pl. 49, f. 1-3.
The form with yellowish suffusion, more common but not invariably present in the male, occurs in both sexes.
Queensland : Gayndah ; Nanango ; Nambour ; Brisbane ; Rosewood : Toowoomba. New South Wales: Macleay River; Sydney; Jervis Bay.
22. Gen. CALAMIDIA.
Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877, p 358. Hmps. ii., p. 181.
Tongue well developed. Palpi ascending, moderate in female ; very long in male. Antennae with minute ciliations and short bristles in both sexes. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with a pentagonal areole, its posterior edge short; 2 from § or before, 3 and 4 separate, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7 from posterior inferior and 8, 9 stalked from posterior superior angle of areole, 10 from middle of areole, 11 from f, free. Hindwing broad; 2 from middle, 3 and 4 connate, 5 absent, 6 and 7 connate or closely approximated, 12 anasto- mosing to middle of cell. Type, C. hirta. A small Papuan genus.
40. Calamidia hirta.
9 . Lithosia hirta Wlk. ii., p. 510.
Calamidia hirta Meyr. l.c. p. 694.
$ . Calamidia salpinctis Meyr. l.c., p. 694.
Palpi in male extremely long, smooth ; second joint exceeding vertex; terminal' joint longer than second, spathulate at apex; in female moderate, appressed to face, not reaching vertex; terminal joint short, acute.
Queensland : Cairns ; Atherton Plateau ; Eungella ; Nambour ; Bris- bane ; Bunya Mountains; Killarney. New South Wales: Lismore; Ebor ; Sydney ; Jervis Bay. Victoria : Tasmania : Burnie.
70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
28. Gen. HESYCHOPA nov.
TjcrvxoiTTos , soft, gentle.
Tongue well developed. Palpi moderate (1) ; second joint shortly rough-scaled; terminal joint obtusely pointed. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Porewings with a large areole wide at base, narrower and rounded at apex ; 2 from near middle, 3, 4, 5 approximated from angle, 6 from upper angle or from areole, 7 and 10 from near end of areole, 8 and 9 stalked from its apex, 11 curved and approximated to 12, rarely anastomosing. Hind- wings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, H. chionora Meyr. Australian.
41. Hesychopa molybdica n.sp.
/jLoXvpStKos, leaden.
$ . 32-37 mm. Head grey. Palpi 1 ; fuscous, at base whitish-
ochreous. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male bristles 1^. Thorax lustrous leaden-grey; posterior edge pale ochreous. Abdomen grey- whitish. Legs whitish-ochreous ; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings elongate, strongly dilated, costa straight to f, thence arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; glossy leaden-grey; a white costal streak from base to § ; costal edge ochreous, near base blackish ; cilia white. Hindwings with termen gently rounded; whitish; cilia whitish. Underside of forewings with basal half and a costal streak ochreous; of hindwings, ochreous on costal half of basal area.
$ . 36-40 mm. Head fuscous. Thorax white ; patagia fuscous.
Forewings uniformly white without markings. Hindwings as in male. Underside of both wings white ; costal edge of both and base of fore- wings ochreous-tinged.
North Queensland: Atherton Plateau (Ravenshoe, Millaa Millaa, Lake Barrine, and Malanda) in June, September, November, December, and January; seven specimens.
42. Hesychopa chionora.
Lithosia chionora Meyr. l.c., p. 702.
Apistosia chionora Hmps. ii., p. 226.
Queensland: Atherton Plateau; Nambour; Brisbane;. Mount
Tamborine; Macpherson Range, 3,400 feet; Toowoomba; Bunya Moun- tains. New South Wales: Ebor; Sydney; Mount Wilson. Tasmania: Launceston.
24. Gen. PALAEOSIA.
Hmps. ii., p. 227.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, porrect; second joint rough- scaled; terminal joint obtuse. Antennae in male with ciliations and bristles. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with a large areole, wide at base, apex rounded ; 2 from near angle, 3, 4, 5 approxi- mated, 6 from upper angle, 7 and 10 from near end of areole, 8 and 9 stalked from its apex, 11 from f, anastomosing with 12. Hindwings with 2 from middle, 3, 4, 5 stalked or 3 connate, 6 and 7 stalked, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell.
Nearly allied to Hesychopa, from which it differs in the presence of vein 5 in the hindwings. Monotypical.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) .
71
43. Palaeosia bicosta.
Lithosia bicosta Wlk. ii., p. 506. Meyr. l.c., p. 702.
Palaeosia bicosta Hmps. ii., p. 227.
Lithosia fraterna Butl. Trans. Ent. Soc. 1877, p. 349.
Queensland: Macpherson Range, 3-4,000 feet. New South Wales: Glen Innes; Ebor; Sydney; Mount Wilson. Victoria: Melbourne, Gis- borne; Moe. Tasmania: Launceston; Deloraine; Waratah; Rosebery; Hobart; Bothwell; Coles Bay; Wilmot. South Australia: Mount. Lofty.
25. Gen. UTETHEISA.
Ilb. Verz., p. 168. Hmps. iii., p. 480.
Tongue well developed. Palpi moderately long, ascending, thickened with appressed scales, rough-scaled at base beneath, obtuse. Antennae in male usually simple with cilia and bristles but sometimes serrate or shortly bipectinate. Thorax and femora smooth. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 from upper angle or beneath, 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 from near end of cell anastomosing with 8 to form an areole, 11 from near end, free. Hind- wings much broader than forewings (over 2) ; 2 from f, 3, 4, 5 separate, 6 and 7 approximated, 12 anastomosing with cell to § or, middle. Type, U. bella Lin. from North America. A small genus characteristic of the tropics of both hemispheres. It is a somewhat isolated and primitive form, which by its slender build and very broad hindwings seems to me more nearly related to Palaeosia , though Hampson places it in the Arctiinae. Utetheisa Hb. has priority over Deiopeia Curt. A genus of moderate size characteristic of the Old and New World tropics.
Key to Species.
1. Hindwing of male' with a subdorsal fold and tuft
of hair on upper side . . . . . . . . 2
Hindwings of male without fold and tuft . .
2. Antennae of male shortly bipectinate Antennae of male serrate
44. Utetheisa pectinata.
Utetheisa pectinata Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xix., Suppl. ii., p. 509, PL 68, f. 17.
North Australia: Port Essington.
pulchella
pectinata
pulchelloides
p. 240, and
45. Utetheisa pulchelloides.
Utetheisa puchelloides Hmps. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xix., p. 239, and Supl. ii., p. 510, PI. 68, f. 18.
North Australia: Darwin; Baudin Island. North Queensland: Cape York; Cooktown. North-West Australia: Montebello Island. Also from New Guinea, Solomons, and Polynesian Islands.
46. Utetheisa pulchella.
Tinea pulchella Lin. Syst. Nat., i., p. 534.
Noctua pulchra Den. &, Schif. Wien. Verz., p. 68.
72
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF QUEENSLAND.
Geometra lotrix Cram. Pap. Exot., ii.? PL 109, f. E.F.
Deiopeia thyter Butl. Tr. Ent. Soc. 1877, p. 361.
Deiopeia pulchella Meyr. l.c., p. 758.
Vtetheisa pulchella Hmps. iii., p. 483.
North Australia: Darwin; Brock’s Creek; Newcastle Waters; Macdonnell Ranges, Queensland: Thursday Island; Cairns; Innisfail; Atherton Plateau ; Dunk Island ; Palm Island ; Townsville ; Charters Towers; Bowen; Mackay; Lindeman I.; Yeppoon; Eidsvold; Gayndah; Gympie; Brisbane; Toowoomba; Dalby; Roma; Charleville ; Adavale ; Winton. New South Wales : Glen Innes ; Ebor ; Murrurundi ; Newcastle ; Sydney; Jervis Bay; Broken Hill. Victoria: . Tasmania: Laun-
ceston ; Strahan. South Australia : Mount Lofty. West Australia : Perth. North-West Australia: Wyndham. Also from China, India, Africa, and Europe.
26. Gen. STENOSCAPTIA.
Hmps. ii., p. 280.
Tongue well developed. Palpi short, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae in male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Forewings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 separate or stalked, 5 absent, 6 from below upper angle, 7, 8, 9' stalked, 9 separating before 7, 10 from before end of cell, 11 from f, free. Hindwings with 2 from f, 3 and 4 coinci- dent, 5 separate from above angle, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell. Type, S. venusta. Endemic.
In male with a tuft of long hairs beneath on vein 5 beyond middle. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked.
47. Stenoscaptia phlogozona.
Stenoscaptia phlogozona Turn. Trans. Roy Soc. S.A., 1904, p. 212. Hmps. Suppl. i., p. 589.
North Queensland : Cairns ; Townsville. Also- from New Guinea.
48. Stenoscaptia venusta.
Stenoscaptia venusta Luc. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., 1890, p. 1078. Hmps. Suppl. ii., p. 28.
Forewings with 3 and 4 separate.
Queensland: Brisbane; Milmerran.
27. Gen. ARRHYTLIMICA nov. a ppvdfUKos, disorderly.
Tongue present. Palpi short, ascending, smooth, slender, acute. Antennae of male ciliated. Posterior tibiae with middle spurs. Fore- wings with 2 from towards angle, 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 absent, 6 from upper angle, 7, 8, 10 stalked, 9 absent, 11 from near end of cell, free. Hindwings with cell \ ; 2 from f , 3 and 4 long-stalked, 5 nearly approxi- mated, 6 and 7 coincident, 12 anastomosing to middle of cell.
Allied to Goniosema, with which it agrees in neuration of forewings.
A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN ARCTIIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) . 73
49. Arrhythmica semifusca n.sp. semifuscus, half-dark.
$ . 18-22 mm. Head whitish. Palpi fuscous or grey. Antennae